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Type: Prelims Only

  • Tribes in News

    Sarna Religion of the Tribals

    Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Sarna Religion

    Mains level: Tribal assertiveness

    sarna

    West Bengal Assembly has tabled a motion to recognize Sarna Religion of the tribals and have a Sarna Code.

    Sarna Religion

    • The followers of Sarna faith believe pray to nature.
    • The holy grail of the faith is “Jal (water), Jungle (forest), Zameen (land)” and its followers pray to the trees and hills while believing in protecting the forest areas.
    • Jharkhand has 32 tribal groups of which eight are from Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups.
    • While many follow Hindu religion, some have converted to Christianity — this has become one of the planks of demanding a separate code “to save religious identity”— as various tribal organisations put it.

    Demand for Sarna Code

    • Tribal groups in the region have long demanded the Sarna code, a separate religious classification in the census, recognising their status as independent religious communities.
    • It is believed that 50 lakhs tribal in the entire country put their religion as ‘Sarna’ in the 2011 census, although it was not a code.
    • The resolution will seek a special column for followers of the Sarna religion in the Census, 2021.
    • At present, they are not classified as a separate entity.

    Politics around the tribe

    • Many of the tribals who follow this faith have later converted to Christianity—the state has more than 4% Christians most of whom are tribals.
    • Some who still follow the Sarna faith believe the converted tribals are taking the benefits of reservation as a minority, as well as the benefits, are given to Schedule Tribes.
    • They also believe that benefits should be given specifically to them and not to those who have converted.

    What sense does a separate code make?

    • The protection of their language and history is an important aspect of tribals.
    • Between 1871 and 1951, the tribals had a different code. However, it was changed around 1961-62.
    • Experts argue that when today the entire world is focusing on reducing pollution and protecting the environment, it is prudent that Sarna becomes a religious code as the soul of this religion is to protect nature and the environment.

     

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    CAR T-Cell Therapy for treatment of Cancer

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: CAR T-Cell Cancer Therapy

    Mains level: Not Much

    cancer

    The new CAR T-Cell Immunotherapy holds promise for Ovarian Cancer patients over other forms of treatment.

    What are CAR T-cells?

    • Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapies represent a quantum leap in the sophistication of cancer treatment.
    • Unlike chemotherapy or immunotherapy, which require mass-produced injectable or oral medication, CAR T-cell therapies use a patient’s own cells.
    • They are modified in the laboratory to activate T-cells, a component of immune cells, to attack tumours.
    • These modified cells are then infused back into the patient’s bloodstream after conditioning them to multiply more effectively.
    • The cells are even more specific than targeted agents and directly activate the patient’s immune system against cancer, making the treatment more clinically effective.
    • This is why they’re called ‘living drugs’.

    How does the therapy work?

    • In CAR T-cell therapy, the patient’s blood is drawn to harvest T-cells which are immune cells that play a major role in destroying tumour cells.
    • Researchers modify these cells in the laboratory so that they express specific proteins on their surface, known as chimeric antigen receptors (CAR).
    • They have an affinity for proteins on the surface of tumour cells.
    • This modification in the cellular structure allows CAR T-cells to effectively bind to the tumour and destroy it.
    • The final step in the tumour’s destruction involves its clearance by the patient’s immune system.

    Where is it used?

    • As of today, CAR T-cell therapy has been approved for leukaemias (cancers arising from the cells that produce white blood cells) and lymphomas (arising from the lymphatic system).
    • These cancers occur through the unregulated reproduction of a single clone of cells, that is, following the cancerous transformation of a single type of cell, it produces millions of identical copies.
    • As a result, the target for CAR T-cells is consistent and reliable.
    • CAR T-cell therapy is also used among patients with cancers that have returned after an initial successful treatment or which haven’t responded to previous combinations of chemotherapy or immunotherapy.
    • Its response rate is variable. In certain kinds of leukaemias and lymphomas, the efficacy is as high as 90%, whereas in other types of cancers it is significantly lower.

    How widespread is its use?

    • The complexity of preparing CAR T-cells has been a major barrier to their use.
    • The first clinical trial showing they were effective was published almost a decade ago; the first indigenously developed therapy in India was successfully performed only in 2022.
    • The technical and human resources required to administer this therapy are also considerable.
    • Treatments in the US cost more than a million dollars.
    • Trials are underway in India, with companies looking to indigenously manufacture CAR T-cells at a fraction of the cost.
    • The preliminary results have been encouraging.

    What are conventional cancer therapies?

    • The three major forms of treatment for any cancer are surgery (removing the cancer), radiotherapy (delivering ionising radiation to the tumour), and systemic therapy (chemotherapy- administering medicines that act on the tumour only).
    • Surgery and radiotherapy have been refined significantly over time whereas advances in systemic therapy have been unparalleled.
    • A new development on this front, currently holding the attention of many researchers worldwide, is the CAR T-cell therapy.

    Will this therapy be expensive in India as well?

    • In India, introducing any new therapy faces the twin challenges of cost and value.
    • Critics argue that developing facilities in India may be redundant and/or inappropriate as even when it becomes cheaper, CAR T-cell therapy will be unaffordable to most Indians.
    • Those who are affluent and require the therapy currently receive it abroad anyway.
    • While this is true, it may be the right answer to the wrong question.
    • Having access to a global standard of care is every patient’s right; how it can be made more affordable can be the next step.

     

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  • Banking Sector Reforms

    What are Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS)?

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Inclusive Growth & Issues

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: PACS

    Mains level: Rural banking mechanisms

    pacs

    The Union Budget has announced Rs 2,516 crore for computerization of 63,000 Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) over the next five years.

    Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS)

    • PACS are village level cooperative credit societies that serve as the last link in a three-tier cooperative credit structure headed by the State Cooperative Banks (SCB) at the state level.
    • Credit from the SCBs is transferred to the district central cooperative banks, or DCCBs, that operate at the district level.
    • The DCCBs work with PACS, which deal directly with farmers.
    • Since these are cooperative bodies, individual farmers are members of the PACS, and office-bearers are elected from within them.
    • A village can have multiple PACS.

    What is its lending mechanism?

    • PACS are involved in short term lending — or what is known as crop loan.
    • At the start of the cropping cycle, farmers avail credit to finance their requirement of seeds, fertilisers etc.
    • Banks extend this credit at 7 per cent interest, of which 3 per cent is subsidised by the Centre, and 2 per cent by the state government.
    • Effectively, farmers avail the crop loans at 2 per cent interest only.

    NPAs with PACS

    • NABARD’s annual report of 2021-22 shows that 59.6 per cent of the loans were extended to the small and marginal farmers.
    • A report published by the Reserve Bank of India on December 27, 2022 put the number of PACS at 1.02 lakh.
    • At the end of March 2021, only 47,297 of them were in profit.
    • The same report said PACS had reported lending worth Rs 1,43,044 crore and NPAs of Rs 72,550 crore. Maharashtra has 20,897 PACS of which 11,326 are in losses.

    Why are PACS attractive?

    • The attraction of the PACS lies in the last mile connectivity they offer.
    • For farmers, timely access to capital is necessary at the start of their agricultural activities.
    • PACS have the capacity to extend credit with minimal paperwork within a short time.

     

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  • Financial Inclusion in India and Its Challenges

    What are White Label ATMs?

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: White Label ATM

    Mains level: Financial inclusion

    atm

    The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has extended the validity of authorization issued to Vakrangee to setup, own and operate White Label ATMs in India.

    What is White Label ATM?

    • Usually ATMs are managed by banks. But White Label ATMs are owned and operated by non-banking entities.
    • ATMs operated under this business model allow customers to use them for banking transactions regardless of the bank they have an account with.
    • RBI approved the operation and inclusion of WLA ATM by non-banking organisations under the Payment and Settlement Systems Act of 2007.
    • It was introduced to expand India’s ATM network, especially in semi-urban and rural areas.

    How does it work?

    • White Label ATM companies work with banking networks to enable bank customers to use banking services like withdrawing funds, paying bills and depositing cash.
    • White Label ATM (WLA) operators’ charge card-issuing bank fees to provide this facility to the bank’s clients.
    • The transaction process in White Label ATM operators consists of a lending bank, a sponsor bank that handles settlements and an ATM network provider.
    • The Sponsor bank provides the cash facility for the White ATM.

    Significance of WLA: Financial Inclusion

    • Financial inclusion is concerned with the availability of financial services and adequate financing to low-income individuals and other vulnerable segments of society.
    • ATMs promote financial inclusion and provide customers with various banking services at any location and time.

    White Label ATM Operators in India

    • Non-banks set up and operate White ATMs as per the rules laid down by RBI for using ‘other bank’ ATMs.
    • These ATMs accept all domestic debit cards and offer the first five or three transactions per month free of cost, depending on the location.
    • Below mentioned are some examples of companies that operate white label ATMs:
    1. Indicash – India’s largest White Label ATM network responsible for ‘uberisation of ATMs.’
    2. India1 Payments (BTI Payments Pvt. Ltd.)
    3. Hitachi Payment Services Pvt. Ltd.
    4. Tata Communications Payment Solutions Ltd.
    5. Vakrangee Limited

    Benefits of White Label ATMs

    There are many benefits of White Label ATMs:

    • Customers benefit from White Label ATMs since they eliminate the need to visit a bank branch on a regular basis
    • ATMs are available 24 hours a day, seven days a week, including holidays
    • Banks benefit from this because they do not have to maintain a huge staff/office (compared to a system without ATMs). It lowers their branch-operational costs
    • Financial inclusion of rural, semi-urban, and low-income people
    • It allowed ATM cards to be issued by any bank that can be used at White Label ATMs
    • WLA atm also provides mobile recharge, energy bill payments, and other value-added services

    Limitations of White Label ATMs

    There are also a few limitations of White Label ATMs:

    • The issue of unsuccessful transactions is a key source of concern. In the event of a dispute, the dispute resolution method will include three entities, namely the WLA operator, the WLA operator’s sponsor bank, and the customer’s bank.
    • Customers will be discouraged by the cost issue, as they will be obliged to pay a price to use the White Label ATMs, as only a limited number of free transactions are permitted on the WLAs
    • White label ATMs’ financial viability is questioned because of their low interchange charge and hefty operational expenses
    • If there is a bank-managed ATM in the same area as a WLA ATM, the White Label ATMs may not be able to generate a profit

    Differences Between Brown Label and White Label ATMs

    The differences between Brown Label ATM and White Label ATMs are:

    Brown Label ATM White Label ATM
    Brown Label ATMs have their hardware and ATM machine leased by a service provider Non-banking entities own and operate ATMs
    The sponsor bank’s brand name appears on the Brown label ATM There is no bank logo on a white label ATM machine
    The RBI is not directly involved. These outsourcing firms are bound by contracts with their respective banks The RBI is directly involved as white label companies must obtain a license or permission from the RBI in order to conduct business

     

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  • Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

    Bard: Google’s answer to ‘ChatGPT’

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Bard, ChatGPT, AI

    Mains level: AI, Machine Learning

    bard

    Google has finally decided to answer the challenge and threat posed by Microsoft-backed OpenAI and its AI chatbot- ChatGPT.

    What is Bard, when can I access it?

    • Google’s Bard is functioned on LaMDA, the firm’s Language Model for Dialogue Applications system, and has been in development for several years.
    • It is what Sunder Pichai termed an “experimental conversational AI service”.
    • Google will be opening it up to trusted testers ahead of making it more widely available to the public in the coming weeks.
    • It is not yet publicly available.

    What is Bard based on?

    • Bard is built on Transformer technology—which is also the backbone of ChatGPT and other AI bots.
    • Transformer technology was pioneered by Google and made open-source in 2017.
    • Transformer technology is a neural network architecture, which is capable of making predictions based on inputs and is primarily used in natural language processing and computer vision technology.
    • Previously, a Google engineer claimed LaMDA was a ‘sentient’ being with consciousness.

    How does it work?

    • Bard draws on information from the web to provide fresh, high-quality responses.
    • In short, it will give in-depth, conversational and essay-style answers just like ChatGPT does right now.
    • It requires significantly less computing power, enabling us to scale to more users, allowing for more feedback.

    A user will be able to ask Bard to explain new discoveries from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope to a 9-year-old, or learn more about the best strikers in football right now, and then get drills to build your skills.

     

    What about its computing power?

    • Remember running these models also requires significant computing power.
    • For instance, ChatGPT is powered by Microsoft’s Azure Cloud services.
    • This also explains why the service often runs into errors at times, because too many people are accessing it.

    Key difference between ChatGPT and Google’s Bard

    • It appears that to take on ChatGPT, Google has an ace up its sleeve: the ability to draw information from the Internet.
    • Bard draws on information from the web to provide fresh, high-quality responses.
    • ChatGPT has impressed with its ability to respond to complex queries — though with varying degrees of accuracy — but its biggest shortcoming perhaps is that it cannot access real-time information from the Internet.
    • ChatGPT’s language model was trained on a vast dataset to generate text based on the input, and the dataset, at the moment, only includes information until 2021.

    Is Bard better than ChatGPT?

    • Bard looks like a limited rollout right now.
    • Google is looking for a lot of feedback at the moment around Bard, so it is hard to say whether it can answer more questions than ChatGPT.
    • Google has also not made clear the amount of knowledge that Bard possesses.
    • For instance, with ChatGPT, we know its knowledge is limited to events till 2021.
    • Of course, it is based on LaMDA, which has been in the news for a while now.

    Why has Google announced Bard right now?

    • Bard comes as Microsoft is preparing to announce an integration of ChatGPT into its Bing Search engine.
    • Google might have invented the ‘Transformer’ technology, but it is now being seen as a latecomer to the AI revolution.
    • ChatGPT in many ways is being called the end of Google Search, given that conversational AI can give long, essay style and sometimes elegant answers to a user’s queries.
    • Of course, not all of these are correct, but then AI is capable of correcting itself as well and learning from mistakes.

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  • ISRO Missions and Discoveries

    NASA-ISRO partnership’s NISAR and its Mission

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: NISAR

    Mains level: Not Much

    nisar

    An earth-observation satellite NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) jointly developed by NASA and ISRO is all set to be shipped to India later this month for a possible launch in September.

    What is NISAR?

    • NISAR has been built by space agencies of the US and India under a partnership agreement signed in 2014.
    • The 2,800 kilograms satellite consists of both L-band and S-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR) instruments, which makes it a dual-frequency imaging radar satellite.
    • While NASA has provided the L-band radar, GPS, a high-capacity solid-state recorder to store data, and a payload data subsystem, ISRO has provided the S-band radar, the GSLV launch system and spacecraft.
    • Another important component of the satellite is its large 39-foot stationary antenna reflector.
    • Made of a gold-plated wire mesh, the reflector will be used to focus the radar signals emitted and received by the upward-facing feed on the instrument structure.

    What is the mission?

    • Once launched into space, NISAR will observe subtle changes in Earth’s surfaces, helping researchers better understand the causes and consequences of such phenomena.
    • It will spot warning signs of natural disasters, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and landslides.
    • The satellite will also measure groundwater levels, track flow rates of glaciers and ice sheets, and monitor the planet’s forest and agricultural regions, which can improve our understanding of carbon exchange.
    • By using synthetic aperture radar (SAR), NISAR will produce high-resolution images.
    • SAR is capable of penetrating clouds and can collect data day and night regardless of the weather conditions.

     

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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    In news: Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)

    Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: ASI

    Mains level: Not Much

    The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has decided to form a special committee to trace and certify 24 protected monuments that have gone “missing”.

    Why in news?

    • PMO has in a report last month said there was an urgent need to “rationalise” the list of monuments of national importance.

    Sites in news

    • Barakhamba Cemetery temple ruins, Mirzapur (UP) dating to 1000 AD
    • Kos Minars – one at Faridabad’s Mujesar and
    • Inchla Wali Gumti at Mubarakpur Kotla in the capital

    Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) 

    • Founded by Alexander Cunningham, who is also revered as the “Father of Indian Archaeology”
    • He was the protege of James Prinsep.
    • It was Lord Canning who helped pass a statute for ASI’s establishment in 1861.
    • Post-Independence, it is a Statutory body that now works under Ancient monuments and archaeological sites and remains act (AMASR Act), 1958.
    • It works as an attached Office of the Ministry of Culture.
    • ASI has 3678 protected monuments and Archaeology sites of National Importance + 29 cultural under the World Heritage List by UNESCO.

    Initiatives by ASI

    1. Museums
    • ASI’s museums are customarily located right next to the sites that their inventories are associated with “so that they may be studied amid their natural surroundings and not lose focus by being transported”.
    • A dedicated Museums Branch maintains a total of 44 museums spread across the country.
    1. Publications by ASI
    • Epigraphia Indica
    • Ancient India
    • Indian Archaeology: A Review (Annually)
    1. Library
    • Central Archaeological Library in the National Archives building in Janpath, New Delhi

     

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  • North-East India – Security and Developmental Issues

    [pib] Yuva Sangam Portal

    Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Yuva Sangam

    Mains level: Not Much

    The Union Ministry of Education has launched the “Yuva Sangam” registration portal.

    Yuva Sangam

    • The Yuva Sangam is an initiative of Hon’ble Prime Minister to build close ties between the youth of North East Region and rest of India under the spirit of Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat.
    • Yuva Sangam embodies the philosophy of our rich culture, our glorious history and ancient heritage.
    • Youth between the ages of 18 and 30 will take part in this program.
    • Over 20000 youth will travel across India and gain a unique opportunity of cross cultural learning.
    • Through the course of the program, students will interact with each other in the areas of language, literature, cuisine, festivals, cultural events and tourism.
    • They will get a first-hand experience of living in a completely different geographical and cultural scenario.

    Significance of the program

    • The program will give an opportunity to see, know, and understand India and do something for the country.
    • This is yet another initiative of PM Modi for cementing the bond between the northeast and the rest of India.
    • Yuva Sangam will celebrate India`s diversity, rejuvenate the spirit of oneness and highlight the strength of India`s democracy as envisioned by the PM.

     

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  • Judicial Reforms

    73rd establishment day of Supreme Court

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Supreme Court of India

    Mains level: Not Much

    supreme court

    The Supreme Court of India is hosting its celebration of the 73rd anniversary of its establishment today.

    Why in news?

    • This year’s event is being aired on social media platforms and will witness Singapore’s Chief Justice Sundaresh Menon, who is of Indian origin, as the chief guest.

    When was the Supreme Court founded?

    • On January 28, 1950, two days after India became a sovereign democratic republic, the Supreme Court of India came into being.
    • The first CJI of India was H. J. Kania.
    • The inauguration took place in the Chamber of Princes in the Parliament building which was the home to the Federal Court of India for 12 years preceding the Supreme Court’s establishment.
    • The Parliament House was to be the home of the Supreme Court for years that were to follow until the court acquired its own present building with lofty domes and its signature spacious colonnaded verandas in 1958.

    History of established

    • In 1861, the Indian High Courts Act 1861 was enacted to create high courts for various provinces and abolished Supreme Courts at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay and also the sadar adalats in presidency towns in their respective regions.
    • These new high courts had the distinction of being the highest courts for all cases till the creation of the Federal Court of India under the Government of India Act 1935.
    • The Federal Court had jurisdiction to solve disputes between provinces and federal states and hear appeals against judgment of the high courts.

    Premise of the Supreme Court

    • In 1958, when the court shifted its premises, the building was shaped to project the image of scales of justice, in the central wing.
    • In 1979, two new wings – the East wing and the West wing – were added to the complex. In all, there are 19 Courtrooms in the various wings of the building.
    • The Chief Justice’s Court is the largest of the Courts located at the Centre of the Central Wing.

     

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    What is the North Star?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: North Star

    Mains level: Features of parliamentary democracy

    north star

    Vice President said Parliament is the “North Star” of democracy, “a place of discussion and deliberation to realize the aspirations and dreams of the people”.

    What is North Star?

    • North Star is a metaphor to refer to something constant/permanent that leads and provides direction.
    • Polaris, also known as the North Star or the Pole Star, is a very bright star (around 2500 times more luminous than our sun) placed less than 1° away from the north celestial pole.
    • Its position and brightness have made humans use it for navigation since late antiquity.
    • It is a part of the constellation Ursa Minor and is around 323 light-years away from Earth.

    How it helps navigation?

    • It stands almost motionless in the night sky, with all the stars of the northern sky appearing to rotate around it.
    • This makes it an excellent fixed point from which to draw measurements for celestial navigation.
    • Simply the elevation of the star above the horizon gives the approximate latitude of the observer and in the northern hemisphere, if you can see Polaris you can always tell which way is north.
    • Upon crossing the equator to the South, the North Star is lost over the horizon and hence stops being a useful navigational aid.

    When the North Star was first used to navigate?

    • Polaris seems to have been first charted by the Roman mathematician and astronomer Ptolemy, who lived from about 85 to 165 B.C.
    • While there does exist some evidence pointing at how the star was used for navigation in late antiquity, it is during the ‘Age of Exploration’ that it becomes such a central part of human history.
    • Christopher Columbus, on his first trans-Atlantic voyage of 1492, “had to correct (his ship’s bearings) for the circle described by the pole star about the pole”, wrote his son in his biography.
    • As European colonizers set sail for exotic locations across the world, the North Star became an ever-so-important feature.

     

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    Muons and their use to analyse large structures

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Muons

    Mains level: Not Much

    muon

    As per a new study, researchers are examining the fortress wall of Xi’an, an ancient city in China, by using tiny outer space particles ‘Muon’ that can penetrate hundreds of metres of stone surfaces.

    What are Muons?

    • Muons are subatomic particles raining from space.
    • They are created when the particles in Earth’s atmosphere collide with cosmic rays — clusters of high-energy particles that move through space at just below the speed of light.
    • About 10,000 muons reach every square metre of the Earth’s surface a minute.
    • These particles resemble electrons but are 207 times as massive.
    • Therefore, they are sometimes called “fat electrons”. Because muons are so heavy, they can travel through hundreds of metres of rock or other matter before getting absorbed or decaying into electrons and neutrinos.
    • In comparison, electrons can penetrate through only a few centimetres. Muons are highly unstable and exist for just 2.2 microseconds.

    What is muon tomography or muography?

    • Muography is conceptually similar to X-ray but capable of scanning much larger and wider structures, owing to the penetration power of muons.
    • As these high-energy particles are naturally produced and ubiquitous, all one needs to do is place a muon detector underneath, within or near the object of interest.
    • The detector then tracks the number of muons going through the object from different directions, to form a three-dimensional image.

    Muons and archaeology

    • The technique was first used in the late 1960s, when Nobel Laureate and US experimental physicist Luis Alvarez joined hands with Egyptologists to search for hidden chambers in the Pyramid of Khafre, Giza.
    • Nothing was found at the time.

    Recent feats achieved

    • In 2017, modern archaeologists repeated the experiment with more sophisticated and advanced muon detectors and stumbled upon a major finding.
    • By placing several detectors, the archaeologists were able to discover a previously unknown chamber at least 30 metres long.
    • It was the first major inner structure to be found in the pyramid since the 19th century.

    Uses of muography beyond archaeology

    • Apart from archaeology, muography has found use in customs security, internal imaging of volcanoes and others.
    • Around 2015, scientists used the technique to look inside the Fukushima nuclear reactors after the 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan.
    • As the site was highly radioactive, they put the two muon detectors in 10 centimetres thick boxes to protect them from radiation and then carried out the scanning.
    • Muography is also being used by researchers to analyse Mount Vesuvius, a volcano in Italy.

     

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  • North-East India – Security and Developmental Issues

    Two years of Myanmar Coup and Concerns for India

    Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood – Relations

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: NA

    Mains level: Military coup in Myanmar

    myanmar coup

    It is exactly two years since the Myanmar army seized power.

    Myanmar Coup: A quick recap

    • A coup in Myanmar began on the morning of 1 February 2021, when democratically elected members of the country’s ruling party, were deposed by the Tatmadaw—Myanmar’s military.
    • The coup occurred the day before the Parliament of Myanmar was due to swear in the members elected at the 2020 election, thereby preventing this from occurring.
    • Pivot leader Aung San Suu Kyi was detained, along with ministers, their deputies, and members of Parliament.

    India’s continuing policy tightrope in Myanmar

    • For some three decades, India has pursued a ‘Dual-Track Policy’ which essentially means doing business with the junta.
    • India shares a 1,600 km border with Myanmar along four NE states.
    • It has a maritime boundary in the Bay of Bengal, the failure of the Myanmar state presents a foreign policy dilemma that it is struggling to resolve.
    • It has ruled over Myanmar for all but five years since 1990, with tea and sympathy for the pro-democracy forces.

    Why in news now?

    Ans. Pro-democracy armed rebellion within

    • Hundreds of armed pro-democracy civilian resistance groups (People’s Defence Forces) are fighting the junta and turning swathes of the country into no-go areas for the army.
    • In addition some among the two dozen ethnic armed organisations (EAOs) that have been fighting the Myanmar state for autonomy for the last seven decades, have joined hands with the PDFs.

    India’s concerns

    • Chinese inroads: Over the last two decades, as China with its deep pockets emerged as a rival in the region, engaging with the junta was also seen as a way to retain Indian influence in Myanmar.
    • No democratic restoration: Delhi had to calibrate this engagement during the “democratic transition” of the last decade and rebalance the dual track.
    • Narrowed interests: These are becoming apparent, even going by India’s narrowly defined national interests: border security management, and restricting China in Myanmar.
    • Limitations to strategy: India has limited to its old template of engagement— doing business with the military regime, encouraging it restore democracy, and offering sympathy to democratic forces.

    Recent success: Completion of Sittwe Port

    • In the first week of January, Sittwe port, developed by India as part of the Kaladan project, was ready for operation.
    • It is set to be inaugurated soon.

    Five ways in which India’s calculations have been upset

    • Bluff over connectivity: While maritime trade was one objective, the primary objective of this project, to provide alternate access to India’s landlocked north-east states, now seems like a bridge too far.
    • Huge refugee influx: Mizoram is hosting tens of thousands of refugees from the adjoining Chin state in Myanmar. Refugees have come into other Northeastern states, though in fewer numbers.
    • Clouds of terrorism: More dangerously, the recent bombing by the Myanmar Air Force of a Chin militia headquarters on the border with Mizoram, with shrapnel hitting the Indian side during this operation, triggered panic in the area.
    • Narcotics smuggling: Another potential cross-border spillovers is contained in the latest report of the UN Office for Drugs and Crime on Myanmar (Myanmar Opium Survey).
    • Supporting insurgents in India: Myanmar junta has recruited Indian insurgent group (IIGs) in regions adjoining Manipur and Nagaland to fight against the local PDFs and other groups.
    • Worsening of Rohingya crisis: The military cannot resolve the Rohingya crisis, another regional destabilizer.

    Way forward for India

    • Championing this cause in G20: India has projected its year-long presidency of the G20 as an opportunity to project the voice of the global south.
    • Extra-diplomatic engagement: India can open channels to the democratic forces and to some ethnic groups; it can work more actively with ASEAN; it could open an army-to-army channel with the junta; increase people-to-people channels; offer scholarships to Myanmar students like it did for Afghan students in a different era.
    • Ensuring fair elections: The junta is mulling elections later this year after rejigging the first-past-the-post system to proportional representation to undermine the NLD’s electoral might.

     

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  • Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

    What are Shaligram Stones?

    Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Shaligram Stone

    Mains level: NA

    shaligram

    Two sacred Shaligram stones arrived in Ayodhya for crafting the idols of Lord Ram and Janaki at the Ram Temple.

    What is a Shaligram Stones?

    • Shaligram stones are fossils of ammonite, which is a type of mollusk that lived between 400 million and 65 million years ago.
    • They are found in the Shaligram Pilgrimage in the Nepal Himalayas.
    • They date specifically from the Early Oxfordian to the Late Tithonian Age near the end of the Jurassic Period some 165-140 million years ago.
    • Mostly found in riverbeds or banks of the Kali Gandaki, a tributary of the Gandaki River in Nepal, this stone is revered as a representation of Lord Vishnu.
    • The stone is considered to have divine powers and is seen as a symbol of good luck and prosperity.

    Mythological significance

    • Historically, the use of shaligrama shilas in worship can be traced to the time of Adi Shankara through the latter’s works.
    • Specifically it finds mention in the Taittiriya Upanishad.
    • The statue of Vishnu in the Padmanabhaswamy Temple of Thiruvananthapuram and Badrinath Temple of Garhwal region, and that of Krishna in Krishna Matha of Udupi and Radha Raman Temple of Vrindavana are also believed to be made from shaligrama shilas.

     

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  • Electoral Reforms In India

    No bar on contesting two seats in one poll: Supreme Court

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People’s Act

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Section 33 (7) of the RPA, 1951

    Mains level: Not Much

    The Supreme Court has refused to set aside a provision in the election law that allows candidates to contest polls from two constituencies simultaneously.

    What is the issue?

    • The petition had sought the court to declare Section 33(7) of the Representation of People Act invalid and ultra vires.
    • Like one-person-one-vote, one-candidate-one-constituency is the dictum of democracy, argued the petition.

    What did the SC say?

    • This is a policy matter and an issue concerning political democracy.
    • It is for the Parliament to take a call, CJI observed.

    Provision for contesting polls from two constituency

    • Under section 33 (7) of the RPA, 1951, a person is allowed to contest polls, whether a general election, more than one by-elections or biennial elections, from a maximum of two seats.
    • Before this law, candidates could run in any number of constituencies.
    • If candidates win both seats, they must vacate one within 10 days, triggering a by-election, as stated under section 70 of the Act.
    • Under the Constitution, an individual cannot simultaneously be a member of either House of Parliament (or a state legislature), or both Parliament and a state legislature, or represent more than one seat in a House.

    Issues with two polls provision

    • Issues with twin victories: There have been cases where a person contests election from two constituencies, and wins from both. In such a situation he vacates the seat in one of the two constituencies.
    • Expenses of bye-election: The consequence is that a by-election would be required from one constituency involving avoidable expenditure on the conduct of that bye-election.

    ECI supports one-candidate-one-constituency

    • The Election Commission had, in an affidavit in 2018, supported the petition.
    • It had informed the Supreme Court that it had proposed an amendment to Section 33(7) in July 2004.

    Way ahead

    • Heavy election deposits: A candidate should deposit an amount of ₹5 lakh for contesting in two constituencies in an Assembly election or ₹10 lakh in a general election.
    • Recurring election expenses: The amount would be used to cover the expenses for a by-election in the eventuality that he or she was victorious in both constituencies and had to relinquish one.

     

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  • Capital Markets: Challenges and Developments

    What is Additional Surveillance Mechanism (ASM)?

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Additional surveillance mechanism (ASM)

    Mains level: Not Much

    The National Stock Exchange (NSE) placed very famous enterprises of business tycoons under the additional surveillance mechanism (ASM).

    Why in news?

    • The Adani Group has shed $108 billion in market value since Hindenburg Research accused it of stock manipulation and accounting fraud.

    What is Additional Surveillance Mechanism (ASM)?

    • 2018 saw the establishment of the Additional Surveillance Measure (ASM), a measure by SEBI and recognised stock exchanges to control the incredibly volatile stocks on the Indian stock market.
    • ASM in the stock market functions as a control measure for speculative trading to safeguard the interests of retail investors and keep them out of potentially dangerous trading situations.
    • There are two parts of additional margins:
    1. Long-term ASM
    2. Short-term ASM

    What is ASM list in the stock market?

    • ASM list means a collection of securities currently under observation owing to variables like price volatility, volume variation, etc.
    • Investors are alerted to unexpected price movement by stocks that have been shortlisted for the ASM list.
    • These equities are subject to various trading restrictions to halt any speculation.
    • The regulations that apply to stocks on the ASM list are more stringent.
    • They are prohibited from being pledged and using intraday leverages like bracket and cover orders, among others.

    How does it work?

    • For instance, the stock will be moved to a 5% price band the day it joins the ASM list; from then on, it may only move 5% up or down from the previous day’s closing level.
    • As a result of this limit violation, the stock can no longer trade on the market once this limit is violated.
    • In addition, the investor ought to have 100% margin money to trade the stock as of the fifth day.
    • The selected securities will be monitored further, based on predetermined criteria and transferred into Trade to Trade settlement once the criterion is met.

    Criteria to determine ASM list stocks

    The following criteria are used to select stocks for inclusion in ASM and were mutually decided upon by SEBI and Exchanges:

    • Close-to-Close Price Variation
    • Market Capitalisation
    • Volume Variation
    • Delivery Percentage
    • High Low Variation
    • Client Concentration
    • of Unique PANs

     

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    CITES database reveals Red Sanders smuggling

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Red Sanders

    Mains level: Not Much

    red sanders

    The CITES trade database has recorded 28 incidents of Red Sanders confiscation, seizure, and specimen from the wild being exported from India.

    Red Sanders

    • The species, Pterocarpus santalinus, is an Indian endemic tree species, with a restricted geographical range in the Eastern Ghats.
    • It is a very slow-growing tree species that attains maturity in natural forests after 25-40 years.
    • It is endemic to a distinct tract of forests in Andhra Pradesh.
    • It is mainly found in Chittoor, Kadapa, Nandhyal, Nellore, Prakasam districts of Andhra Pradesh.
    • It was classified as ‘near threatened’ in 2018 and has now joined the ‘endangered’ list once again in 2021.
    • It is listed under Appendix II of CITES and is banned from international trade.

    Legal protection in India

    • The Union Environment Ministry had decided to keep Red Sanders (red sandalwood) OUT of the Schedule VI of Wild Life Protection Act, 1972, arguing that this would discourage the cultivation of the rare plant species.
    • Schedule VI regulates and restricts the cultivation, possession, and sale of a rare plant species.

    Threats to this specie

    • Red Sanders are known for their rich hue and therapeutic properties, are high in demand across Asia, particularly in China and Japan.
    • They are used in cosmetics and medicinal products as well as for making furniture, woodcraft and musical instruments.
    • Its popularity can be gauged from the fact that a tonne of Red Sanders costs anything between Rs 50 lakh to Rs 1 crore in the international market.

    Try this question from CSP 2016:

    Q.With reference to ‘Red Sanders’, sometimes seen in the news, consider the following statements:

    1. It is a tree species found in a part of South India.
    2. It is one of the most important trees in the tropical rain forest areas of South India.

    Which of the above statements is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”g8aa54q1a1″ question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

    Back2Basics: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

    • CITES stands for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
    • It is as an international agreement aimed at ensuring “that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival”.
    • It was drafted after a resolution was adopted at a meeting of the members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 1963.
    • It entered into force on July 1, 1975, and now has 183 parties.
    • The Convention is legally binding on the Parties in the sense that they are committed to implementing it; however, it does not take the place of national laws.
    • India is a signatory to and has also ratified CITES convention in 1976.

    CITES Appendices

    • CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain controls.
    • All import, export, re-exports and introduction from the sea of species covered by the convention has to be authorized through a licensing system.
    • It has three appendices:
    1. Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction. Trade-in specimens of these species are permitted only in exceptional circumstances.
    2. Appendix II provides a lower level of protection.
    3. Appendix III contains species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling trade.

     

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  • Industrial Sector Updates – Industrial Policy, Ease of Doing Business, etc.

    What are Lab-Grown Diamonds?

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Lab grown diamonds

    Mains level: Not Much

    diamond

    During her Budget speech, Finance Minister announced the government’s move to focus on lab-grown diamonds (LGDs).

    What did the FM announce?

    • Customs duty on the seeds used in lab-grown diamond manufacturing will be reduced, announced the finance minister.
    • She also announced a grant to IITs to facilitate the growth of LGDs in India.

    What are Lab-Grown Diamonds (LGD)?

    • Lab-grown diamonds are diamonds that are produced using specific technology which mimics the geological processes that grow natural diamonds.
    • They are not the same as “diamond simulants” – LGDs are chemically, physically and optically diamond and thus are difficult to identify as “lab-grown.”
    • While materials such as Moissanite, Cubic Zirconia (CZ), White Sapphire, YAG, etc. are “diamond simulants” that simply attempt to “look” like a diamond.
    • LGDs have basic properties similar to natural diamonds, including their optical dispersion, which provide them the signature diamond sheen.
    • They lack the sparkle and durability of a diamond and are thus easily identifiable.
    • However, differentiating between an LGD and an Earth Mined Diamond is hard, with advanced equipment required for the purpose.

    How are LGDs produced?

    There are multiple ways in which LGDs can be produced.

    • High pressure, high temperature (HPHT) method: This method requires extremely high pressure, high temperature presses that can produce up to 730,000 psi of pressure under extremely high temperatures (at least 1500 Celsius). Usually graphite is used as the “diamond seed” and when subjected to these extreme conditions, the relatively inexpensive form of carbon turns into one of the most expensive carbon forms.
    • Other processes: These include “Chemical Vapor Deposition” (CVD) and explosive formation that creates what are known as “detonation nano-diamonds”.

    What are LGDs used for?

    (1) Production

    • For instance, LGDs are most often used for industrial purposes, in machines and tools. Their hardness and extra strength make them ideal for use as cutters.
    • Furthermore, pure synthetic diamonds have high thermal conductivity, but negligible electrical conductivity.

    (2) Electronics industry

    • This combination is invaluable for electronics where such diamonds can be used as a heat spreader for high-power laser diodes, laser arrays and high-power transistors.

    (3) Jewelleries

    • Lastly, as the Earth’s reserves of natural diamonds are depleted, LGDs are slowly replacing the prized gemstone in the jewellery industry.
    • Crucially, like natural diamonds, LGDs undergo similar processes of polishing and cutting that are required to provide diamonds their characteristic lustre.

     

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  • Judicial Appointments Conundrum Post-NJAC Verdict

    Who is a Puisne Judge, and what does the term mean?

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Puisne Judges, Three Judges Case

    Mains level: Not Much

    While recommending two names for appointment as judges of the Supreme Court, the Collegium headed by Chief Justice of India D Y Chandrachud said that the collegium had taken into “consideration the seniority of Chief Justices and senior puisne Judges…”

    Who are Puisne Judge?

    • According to the dictionary, the word puisne has French origins, which means “later born” or younger.
    • It is pronounced / “puny”, the English word that means small or undersized.
    • Puisne is almost always used in the context of judges, and essentially denotes seniority of rank.
    • The term puisne judge is used in common law countries to refer to judges who are ranked lower in seniority, i.e., any judge other than the Chief Justice of that court.

    Now again, what is common law?

    • Common law is the body of law that is created by judges through their written opinions, rather than through statutes or constitutions (statutory law).
    • Common law, which is used interchangeably with ‘case law’, is based on judicial precedent.
    • The United Kingdom (UK) and the Commonwealth countries, including India, are common law countries.

    Legal reference to Puisne Judges

    In the Third Judges Case ruling in 1998, one of the two cases that led to the evolution of the collegium system, the Supreme Court clarified that-

    • The CJI must make a recommendation to appoint a Judge of the Supreme Court and to transfer a Chief Justice or puisne Judge of a High Court in consultation with the four seniormost puisne Judges of the Supreme Court.

    Is a “puisne judge” in India the same as in the UK?

    • In the UK, puisne judges are judges other than those holding distinct titles.
    • The Supreme Court of Judicature Act, 1877 defined a “puisne judge” as any judge of the High Court besides the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Chief Justice of England, and the Master of the Rolls.
    • In India, all judges have the same judicial powers.
    • As the seniormost judge of a court, the Chief Justice has an additional administrative role.
    • In India, there is a reference to a puisne judge only while considering the order of seniority for appointments, elevations to High Courts, etc., but it does not have a bearing on the exercise of a judge’s judicial power.

    What is the recent context?

    • The Supreme Court collegium recommended current Chief Justices of the Allahabad and Gujarat High Courts respectively, for appointment as judges of the Supreme Court.
    • While giving reasons for its recommendation, the collegium said that the decision was made taking “into consideration the seniority of Chief Justices and senior puisne Judges in their respective parent High Courts.
    • This was done because seniority is one of the several criteria that are considered while making appointments to the higher judiciary.

     

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  • Tribes in News

    Who are the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)?

    Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Schemes For Vulnerable Sections

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: PVTGs

    Mains level: Tribal upliftment

    The Union Budget 2023-24 has provided to launch the Pradhan Mantri PVTG (Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group) Development Mission in order to saturate the PVTG families and habitations with basic facilities.

    What is the budgetary announcement about?

    • The Pradhan Mantri PVTG Mission will be launched as part of ‘Reaching The Last Mile’, one of the seven Saptarishi priorities enlisted in this year’s Budget.
    • More details are awaited for this new.

    Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)

    • There are certain tribal communities who have declining or stagnant population, low level of literacy, pre-agricultural level of technology and are economically backward.
    • They generally inhabit remote localities having poor infrastructure and administrative support.
    • These groups are among the most vulnerable section of our society as they are few in numbers, have not attained any significant level of social and economic development.
    • 75 such groups have been identified and categorized as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).

    Origin of the concept

    • The Dhebar Commission (1960-1961) stated that within Scheduled Tribes there existed an inequality in the rate of development.
    • During the fourth Five Year Plan a sub-category was created within Scheduled Tribes to identify groups that considered to be at a lower level of development.
    • This was created based on the Dhebar Commission report and other studies.
    • This sub-category was named “Primitive tribal group”.

    Features of PVTGs

    • The features of such a group include a:
    1. Pre-agricultural system of existence
    2. Practice of hunting and gathering
    3. Zero or negative population growth
    4. Extremely low level of literacy in comparison with other tribal groups
    • Groups that satisfied any one of the criterion were considered as PTG.
    • In 2006 the government of India proposed to rename “Primitive tribal group” as Particularly vulnerable tribal group”.

     

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India:

    1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory.
    2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.
    3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far.
    4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.

    Which of the statements given above are correct? (CSP 2019)

    (a) 1, 2 and 3

    (b) 2, 3 and 4

    (c) 1, 2 and 4

    (d) 1, 3 and 4

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”v4aaz3vlmy” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

     

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  • Special Category Status and States

    Vishakhapatnam is Andhra Pradesh’s new Capital

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: NA

    Mains level: Multi-capital states

    vishakha

    Visakhapatnam will be the new capital of Andhra Pradesh, announced the Chief Minister.

    AP’s move for three capitals

    • AP had introduced a ‘Three Capitals Act’ titled Andhra Pradesh Decentralisation and Inclusive Development of All Regions Act, 2020.
    • Thus, it was decided that:
    1. Amaravati was to be the Legislative capital
    2. Visakhapatnam the Executive capital and
    3. Kurnool the Judicial capital
    • However, the Andhra Pradesh High Court repealed this Act citing that the legislature has no competence to enact any law for shifting the three organs of the capital.

    Concerns raised by AP government

    • AP contended that the judgement was in violation of the basic structure of the Constitution as the HC cannot hold that the State does not have the powers to decide on its capital.
    • The judgement was against the doctrine of separation of powers as it sought to preempt the legislature from taking up the issue (of three capitals).
    • Further, it is argued that under the federal structure of the Constitution, every State has an inherent right to determine where it should carry out its capital functions from.

    Reasons for AP’s consideration

    (1) Viable option of Visakhapatnam

    • Vizag always had been the biggest city, after Hyderabad, even in the combined State.
    • It has all the settings to become a good living space.

    (2) Sri Krishna panel recommendations

    • The advantages and qualities of Visakhapatnam to become the capital was elaborately deliberated by the Sri Krishna Committee to study the alternatives for a new capital for the State of Andhra Pradesh.
    • Coming to suggestion for the alternative capital, the Committee primarily took up three things for consideration — creation of single city or super city in greenfield location, expanding existing cities and distributed development.

    (3) Decentralisation

    • This idea was elaborately described in the Sri Bagh pact.
    • The pact clearly defined decentralisation, for the benefit of all three main regions such as Coastal AP, Godavari and Krishna districts and Rayalaseema.

    Major practical problems

    • Continuum of work: The government argues that the Assembly meets only after gaps of several months, and government Ministers, officers, and staff can simply go to Amaravati when required.
    • Logistics nightmare: coordinating between seats of legislature and executive in separate cities will be easier said than done.
    • Time and costs of travel: The distances in Andhra Pradesh are not inconsiderable. Executive capital Visakhapatnam is 700 km from judicial capital Kurnool, and 400 km from legislative capital Amaravati.

    Examples of multi-capital states in India

    • Among Indian states, Maharashtra has two capitals– Mumbai and Nagpur (which holds the winter session of the state assembly).
    • Himachal Pradesh has capitals at Shimla and Dharamshala (winter).
    • The former state of Jammu & Kashmir had Srinagar and Jammu (winter) as capitals where Darbar Move is carried out.

     

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