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  • Panchayati Raj Institutions: Issues and Challenges

    What is the International Centre for Audit of Local Governance?  

    Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Panchayats & Local Bodies

    Why in the news? 

    On July 18, CAG Girish Chandra Murmu inaugurated the International Centre for Audit of Local Governance (iCAL) in Rajkot, marking India’s first institute to set global standards for auditing local governance.

    How will iCAL work?

    • iCAL will serve as a platform for policymakers, administrators, and auditors connected with local governments to enhance collaboration and share best practices.
    • Objective: It aims to improve the independence and effectiveness of local government auditors through training, leadership development, and capacity-building initiatives.
    • Significance: iCAL will act as a think tank for addressing governance issues at the grassroots level through interactive workshops, knowledge-sharing sessions, and peer exchanges.

    How are local bodies audited in India?

    • India has a three-tier system consisting of the Union government, state governments, and local bodies (both urban and rural).
    • Local bodies like Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) are audited by various entities:
      • State-level offices like the Examiner of Local Fund Accounts (ELFA)/Director of Local Fund Accounts (DLFA) audit the utilisation of state funds by local bodies.
      • CAG conducts audits of all funds at the central and state levels, including those of local bodies. The CAG also advises and supports ELFA/DLFA.

    Why was a need felt for it?

    • Increased Funding and Need for Proper Auditing: With significant funds flowing to local bodies, there is a pressing need for improved auditing practices to ensure proper utilisation and financial management.
    • Global Practices and Collaboration: There is a need to promote global good practices and institutionalised collaboration among supreme audit institutions (SAIs) to enhance local government audit practices and share best practices.
    • Addressing Inefficiencies: Concerns have been raised about inefficiencies in local body financial management and reporting, as highlighted by the Reserve Bank of India’s 2022 report. iCAL aims to address these inefficiencies through better auditing practices and capacity building.

    Way forward: 

    • Expand Capacity Building and Training Programs: Enhance iCAL’s focus on training and capacity-building for auditors and local government officials.
    • Foster International Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing: Strengthen partnerships with global audit institutions and engage in knowledge exchange initiatives.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q In the absence of well – educated and organised local-level government systems, Panchayats and Samitis have remained mainly political institutions and not effective instruments of governance. Critically Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2015)

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  • Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

    The promise of parametric insurance

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

    Why in the news? 

    In 2023, natural disaster losses hit $280 billion, with only $100 billion insured, highlighting a need for innovative insurance solutions amid rising extreme weather events.

    Present Method of Disaster Risk Reduction

    • Indemnity-based Insurance Products: Indemnity-based insurance products require a physical assessment of damage after a disaster to determine the payout amount. For example Health Insurance, Motor Insurance and Travel Insurance.

    Challenges:

    • Verification Issues: When large-scale calamities strike, especially in economically disadvantaged areas, it is difficult to verify losses due to the lack of records and widespread destruction.
    • Delays in Payouts: The need for physical assessment can cause delays in providing financial assistance to the affected individuals and communities.
    • Insurance Gap: There is a significant gap in insurance coverage between developed and developing economies, leaving many vulnerable populations without adequate protection.

    Changing course and the associated limitations:

    • Parametric insurance: Payments are made based on predefined parameters of weather events (e.g., rainfall exceeding 100 mm per day for two consecutive days, specific flood levels, wind speed).The payouts are made without the need for physical assessment of losses, enabling quicker disbursements.

    Examples:

    • Disaster-prone Island Countries: Many have adopted parametric insurance for climate adaptation, moving away from risk retention models. For example, Fiji launched its first parametric insurance product in 2021
    • Morocco received $275 million in parametric insurance after a 6.8 magnitude earthquake, arranged with the help of the World Bank.
    • India has initiated crop insurance (e.g., Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana and the Restructured Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme).

    Associated Limitations

    • Current Focus: Primarily used for low-frequency, high-impact disasters like earthquakes, cyclones, and hurricanes.
    • Data and Infrastructure Requirements: There is challenges related to developing and maintaining the necessary infrastructure for data collection and monitoring can be challenging, especially in developing regions.
    • Affordability and Accessibility issues: It demands high premiums can still be a barrier for economically disadvantaged communities.

    Case Study of Nagaland:

    • Nagaland was the first state in India to buy parametric cover for extreme precipitation in 2021.
    • Based on lessons learned, it improved the product by fixing an absolute annual premium, duration, and rate online, allowing bidders to compete over lower threshold limits and maximized payouts.

    What can be done to ensure effectiveness? (Way Forward)

    • Precise Thresholds and Robust Monitoring: Establish clear, accurate parameters for insurance triggers and implement reliable monitoring systems to track these parameters effectively.
    • Transparent Bidding and Experience Sharing: Follow a transparent bidding process for price discovery and facilitate the exchange of best practices and lessons learned between governments.
    • Widespread Payout Systems and Household Premium Support: Develop comprehensive systems for distributing payouts and promote long-term premium payment by households, leveraging tools like Aadhaar-based payment dissemination.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) before and after signing ‘Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework different from ‘Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005’? (UPSC IAS/2018)

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  • Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

    The Green Revolution in Maize

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Major Crops & Cropping Patterns

    Why in the news? 

    Over the past two decades, India’s maize production has more than tripled, emerging as a private sector-driven green revolution success story. Maize has transitioned from being primarily a feed crop to also serving as a fuel crop.

    What was the Green Revolution?

    • Began in 1968 with the introduction of high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, especially for wheat and rice, developed by agronomist Norman Borlaug
    • Institutions like CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) and IARI (Indian Agricultural Research Institute), led by scientists like Norman Borlaug and M S Swaminathan, played a crucial role.
    • The Green Revolution is credited to M.S. Swaminathan, known as the “Father of the Indian Green Revolution”, who introduced Borlaug’s wheat varieties and other technologies.
    • The initiative focused on increasing agricultural productivity through advanced breeding techniques, fertilizers, and irrigation methods.
    • Wheat production increased from 12 million tons in 1964-65 to 20 million tons in 1970-71.India became self-sufficient in food grain production and a major exporter

    Present India’s Maize Production called as a Green Revolution in Maize

    • Significant Production Increase: Over the last two decades, India’s maize production has surged from 11.5 million tonnes in 1999-2000 to over 35 million tonnes in 2023-24, showcasing a remarkable increase in both yield and output.
    • Private Sector Leadership: This growth has been largely driven by the private sector, with more than 80% of the maize area planted with high-yielding hybrids developed by private seed companies, indicating a successful private sector-led green revolution.
    • Diverse Utilization: Maize in India has evolved from being primarily a feed crop for poultry and livestock to also being a vital industrial crop used for starch and ethanol production, reflecting its expanded role in the economy.

    On Starch and Ethanol Production

    • Maize contains 68-72% starch, with significant industrial applications in textiles, paper, pharmaceuticals, food, and beverages.
    • Maize is emerging as a key feedstock for ethanol production, especially for blending with petrol.
    • IARI has developed a waxy maize hybrid with high amylopectin content, enhancing its suitability for ethanol production.
    • The new Pusa Waxy Maize Hybrid-1 has 71-72% starch with 68-70% recoverable, increasing ethanol yield per tonne.

    Can India adopt new strategies? (Way forward)

    • India can adopt new strategies through innovative breeding techniques like the doubled haploid (DH) technology used by CIMMYT.
    • The DH facility in Karnataka speeds up the development of genetically pure inbred lines, enhancing the efficiency of maize breeding.
    • IARI’s waxy maize hybrid is ready for field trials and commercial release, potentially boosting ethanol production.
    • Collaboration between public sector institutions and private seed companies can drive the adoption of high-yielding, disease-resistant maize varieties.
    • Private sector-bred hybrids account for over 80% of India’s maize area, indicating strong potential for further growth and innovation in maize production.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Explain various types of revolutions, that took place in Agriculture after Independence in India. How these revolutions have helped in poverty alleviation and food security in India? (UPSC IAS/2017)

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    India plans to enter into a carbon crediting mechanism with Japan 

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the news? 

    India is set to establish a Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM) with Japan for carbon trading and emission-reduction credits.

    Memorandum of Cooperation for Setting Up a Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM)

    • Objective and Framework: India and Japan plan to sign a Memorandum of Cooperation to establish a Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM) for sharing emission-reduction credits. The JCM will involve a structured allocation of carbon credits and maintain a registry to track these credits, with projects needing clearance from a Joint Committee.
    • Implementation and Oversight: The mechanism will be governed under Article 6.2 of the Paris Agreement, adhering to relevant domestic laws and regulations of both countries. A Joint Committee will develop rules, manage project cycles, and oversee monitoring and issuance of credits.

    Emission Cuts

    • Credit Allocation: Credits issued under the JCM will contribute to both Japan’s and India’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement. The JCM will avoid double counting of credits and may authorize some credits for international mitigation purposes.
    • Technology Transfer and Capacity Building: Japan will support technology transfer, finance, and capacity building to enhance the effectiveness of the JCM and facilitate the adoption of new technologies.

    Significance of JCM:

    • Increased Access to Clean Technologies: The JCM will facilitate the transfer of advanced decarbonizing technologies from Japan to India, such as renewable energy systems, energy-efficient appliances, and waste management solutions.
    • Job Creation and Skill Development: The implementation of JCM projects will create new employment opportunities in sectors like renewable energy, energy efficiency, and waste management

    Bilateral ties between India and Japan

    • Strategic Partnership: The JCM will strengthen bilateral ties between India and Japan by fostering collaboration on low-carbon technologies and climate action, aimed at boosting job creation and investments in clean technologies.
    • Clean Energy Partnership: It was launched in March 2022, the India-Japan Clean Energy Partnership (CEP) aims to enhance cooperation in sustainable energy transitions to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070.
    • Investment Commitments: During the 14th India-Japan Annual Summit in March 2022, both nations agreed on a target of $42 billion (JPY 5 trillion) in public and private investment from Japan to India over the next five years
    • Low Carbon Emission Strategies: A $600 million fund was established to focus on environmental sustainability and low carbon emission strategies. This initiative is part of a broader effort to enhance Japanese investments in India while addressing climate change.

    Way forward: 

    • Prioritize the adoption of cutting-edge decarbonizing technologies: Japan should prioritize the transfer of its most advanced low-carbon technologies to India, such as renewable energy systems, energy-efficient appliances, and carbon capture and storage solutions.
    • Expand the scope of the JCM to include other areas of climate cooperation: While the initial focus of the JCM should be on emission reduction projects, India and Japan could explore expanding its scope to include other areas of climate cooperation, such as adaptation measures, climate finance, and capacity building.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Clean energy is the order of the day.’ Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics. (UPSC IAS/2022)

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  • Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

    Bombay HC quashes Exemption from RTE Quota for Private Schools  

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    The Bombay High Court has cancelled the Maharashtra government’s new rule that allowed private schools within 1 kilometer of government or government-aided schools to avoid reserving 25% of their seats for students from weaker sections and disadvantaged groups.

    Right to Education (RTE) Act: Overview

    • The Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009 ensures free and compulsory education as fundamental right under Article 21A of the Indian Constitution.
    • It mandates that every child has the right to full-time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school that meets certain essential norms and standards.
    • Key Provisions:
      • The RTE Act provides for free and compulsory education for all children between 6 and 14 years.
      • Schools must be available within a prescribed distance from the child’s residence to ensure accessibility.
      • The Act ensures the provision of adequate teachers and the establishment of standards for their training and quality.
    • Teacher Qualification: The teacher must pass the Teacher Eligibility Test (TET), which is administered by the respective government authority. The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) has established the minimum qualifications required for a person to be eligible for appointment as a teacher for classes I to VIII.
    • The RTE Act does NOT apply to Minority institutions.

    Section 12(1) (C) of the RTE Act:

    • Section 12(1) (C) requires private unaided and specified category schools to reserve at least 25% seats for children from economically weaker sections and disadvantaged groups.
    • This provision aims to promote social inclusion and ensure that children from all backgrounds have access to quality education.
    • The government reimburses schools for the expenses incurred for admitting these children, based on per-child expenditure incurred by the state.
    • Children from economically weaker sections and disadvantaged groups benefit from this Section as it provides them access to private schooling.
    • This section aims to contest education apartheid and bring parity and equality of opportunity for all children.

    Details of the Exemption Rule in Maharashtra

    • The notification stated that private unaided schools within one kilometer of a government or government-aided school would not need to reserve 25% of seats for socio-economically backward students.
    • Students in these areas would first be considered for admission to nearby government or government-aided schools.
    • The exemption also applied to future private schools established within a one-kilometer radius of government or government-aided schools.
    • If no such schools existed in the vicinity, private schools would be identified for RTE admissions.

    Similar Exemptions in Other States

    • Maharashtra joined Karnataka and Kerala in implementing this regime to exempt private schools from RTE admissions.
    • Karnataka introduced the rule in December 2018, referencing Kerala’s rules introduced in 2011.
    • In Kerala, the fee concession is available to RTE quota students only if there are no government or aided schools within one kilometer for Class 1 students.

    Reasons for Introducing Exemptions

    • Karnataka’s Law Minister stated in 2018 that the primary intention of RTE is to provide education to all classes of students.
    • Allowing parents to admit children to private schools despite nearby government schools resulted in a drop in enrollment ratios in government schools.
    • Private schools and teachers’ organizations highlighted that state governments often failed to reimburse fees for students admitted through the RTE quota.
      • Section 12(2) of the RTE Act binds state governments to reimburse expenses incurred by schools per child or the fee amount, whichever is less.
      • In Maharashtra, the Maharashtra English School Trustees Association (MESTA) threatened to boycott RTE admissions last December due to pending reimbursements of Rs 1,800 crore.

    PYQ:

    [2022] The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 remains inadequate in promoting incentive-based systems for children’s education without generating awareness about the importance of schooling. Analyse.

    [2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. As per the right to education (RTE) Act, to be eligible for appointment as a teacher in a state, a person would be required to possess the minimum qualification laid down by the concerned State council of Teacher education.
    2. As per the RTE Act, for teaching primary classes, a candidate is required to pass a Teacher Eligibility Test conducted in accordance with the National Council of Teacher Education guidelines.
    3. In India, more than 90 % of teacher education institutions are directly under the State Governments.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2
    (b) 2 only
    (c) 1 and 3
    (d) 3 only

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  • Tribes in News

    Bhil Tribe have again demanded a separate ‘Bhil Pradesh’

    Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Communalism, Secularism, Regionalism

    Why in the News?

    A large number of people from the Bhil tribe recently gathered at a rally in Rajasthan’s Mangarh Dham to raise the demand for an independent ‘Bhil state’.

    Background of the Bhil Pradesh Demand

    • The idea of a tribal state, comprising parts of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra, has been discussed previously.
    • The demand for a separate tribal state in western India was put forward by the Bharatiya Tribal Party (BTP) formed in 2017.
    • The Bhil community has been demanding that 49 districts be carved out of the four states to establish Bhil Pradesh.
    • The demand for Bhil Pradesh has been raised repeatedly since Independence.

    Historical Context

    • Bhil social reformer and spiritual leader Govind Guru first raised the demand for a separate state for tribals in 1913.
    • The demand followed the Mangarh massacre, where hundreds of Bhil tribals were killed by British forces.
    • The massacre took place six years before the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and is sometimes referred to as the “Adivasi Jallianwala”.

    Reasons for the Demand

    • Earlier, the tribal-majority regions were a single entity but were divided post-Independence.
    • According to the 2011 census, tribals comprise almost 14% of Rajasthan’s population.
    • Several Union governments have brought various laws and schemes for tribals but have been slow in implementation.

    Example of Implementation Issues

    • The Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996, aimed to decentralize governance and empower gram sabhas in tribal areas.
    • The Rajasthan government adopted the law in 1999, but its rules were only formulated in 2011.
    • Many people, including local leaders, are still unaware of the law.

    PYQ:

    [2013] Consider the following pairs :

    Tribe: State

    1. Limboo Limbu : Sikkim

    2. Karbi : Himachal

    3. Dongaria Kondh : Odisha

    4. Bonda : Tamil Nadu

    Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 2 and 4 only

    (c) 1, 3 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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  • Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

    Who was Prithipal Singh Randhawa, student leader shot dead 45 years ago?

    Prelims Only | History and Art & Culture | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

    Why in the News?

    • Prithipal Singh Randhawa, leader of the Punjab Students Union (PSU), was murdered in Ludhiana on July 18, 1979.
      • At the time of his death, he was 27 years old and among the most prominent leaders of the student union movement in Punjab during the 1970s.

    Who was Prithipal Singh Randhawa?

    • Randhawa hailed from Hoshiarpur in Punjab and joined Punjab Agricultural University (PAU), Ludhiana, in 1972.
    • On October 5, 1972, students protested outside Regal Cinema in Moga district against black marketing of tickets. 
      • The police opened fire, killing four people, including student leaders Swarn Singh and Harjeet Singh.
    • In response, Randhawa launched a mass movement, leading to the arrest of the responsible police officers.
    • On October 26, 1974, he organized the massive Moga Sangram rally, addressing issues like student fee hikes and the United States’ imperial war in Vietnam.
    • He was assassinated on July 18, 1979, after abduction.
    • His rising popularity and anti-establishment stance led to his arrest and 19-month imprisonment under the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA) during the Emergency.
    • His death led to massive protests in Punjab, Haryana, and Delhi.

    Back2Basics: Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA): Overview

    • The MISA was a controversial law enacted by the Indian government in 1971.
    • It was primarily aimed at ensuring internal security and public order during times of political unrest and emergencies.
    • MISA was heavily used during the Emergency period (1975-1977) declared by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.

    Key Provisions:

    • Preventive Detention: MISA allows for the preventive detention of individuals without trial for a maximum period of two years. This was intended to pre-emptively address threats to national security.
    • Detention without Charges: Individuals could be detained without being charged with a specific offense, based on the suspicion of being a threat to national security or public order.
    • No Right to Legal Representation: Detainees under MISA did not have the right to legal representation or a fair trial.
    • Limited Judicial Review: The act severely restricted the scope of judicial review, making it difficult for courts to intervene in cases of detention under MISA.

    Controversy and Criticism:

    • Human Rights Violations: MISA was widely criticized for its draconian measures and violation of fundamental human rights, including the right to liberty, freedom of speech, and due process.
    • Political Repression: The act was seen as a tool for political repression, used by the government to silence opposition and dissent.
    • Abuse of Power: There were numerous instances of abuse of power under MISA, with individuals being detained on vague or politically motivated grounds.

    Repeal:

    • After the end of the Emergency in 1977, the newly elected Janata Party government repealed MISA in 1978 as part of its efforts to restore democratic norms and civil liberties.
    • The legacy of MISA remains a stark reminder of the potential for misuse of power and the importance of safeguarding democratic principles and human rights.

     

    PYQ:

    [2022] Which of the following is/are the exclusive power(s) of Lok Sabha?

    1. To ratify the declaration of Emergency
    2. To pass a motion of no-confidence against the Council of Ministers
    3. To impeach the President of India

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 1 and 3

    (d) 3 only

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  • Tribes in News

    Sighting of Peru’s uncontacted Mashko Piro people

    Prelims Only | Trivia | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    An NGO has released rare photographs of the Mashco Piro tribespeople, one of the world’s 100-odd uncontacted tribes.

    Who are the Mashko Piro people?

    • The Mashco Piro tribe, possibly numbering over 750, are nomadic hunter-gatherers.
    • They live in the Amazon jungles of the Madre de Dios Region, near Peru’s border with Brazil and Bolivia.
    • Almost all uncontacted tribes, including the Mashco Piro, live in the jungles of the Amazon and Southeast Asia.
    • The Mashco-Piro speak a dialect of the Piro language.
    • The tribe is highly reclusive and only occasionally contacts the Yine people, another native group.

    Threats from the logging activities

    • Logging companies has been allotted 53,000 hectares in the Madre de Dios forests to extract cedar and mahogany.
    • The Mashco Piro have expressed their disapproval of the logging companies through the Yine people, reporting feelings of pressure and upset due to company assaults.

    Historical Context:

    • The Mashco Piro’s territory was invaded during Peru’s rubber boom in the 1880s, resulting in displacement, enslavement, and mass killings.
    • Survivors moved further upstream on the Manu River and have lived in isolation since then.

    Protective measures from the Government

    • In 2002, the Peruvian government established the Madre de Dios Territorial Reserve to protect the Mashco Piro’s territory.
    • However, large parts of their traditional lands lie outside the reserve and have been sold as logging concessions.
    • The Peruvian government has forbidden all contact with the Mashco Piro to prevent the spread of diseases to which the tribe has no immunity.
    • As logging companies encroach on their territories, the Mashco Piro have nowhere left to go.

    PYQ:

    [2016] Consider the following pairs:

    Community sometimes in the affairs of mentioned in the news

    1. Kurd : Bangladesh
    2. Madhesi : Nepal
    3. Rohingya : Myanmar

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    (a) 1 and 2

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3

    (d) 3 only

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  • Tobacco: The Silent Killer

    Vasco da Gama’s toxic legacy is now a ‘pandemic’ that kills 8 million globally   

    Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the news? 

    On July 8th, 1497, Vasco da Gama’s historic voyage began, reshaping global maritime routes and leaving a lasting impact on trade and culture. This era of exploration introduced and disseminated tobacco, profoundly affecting societies in numerous ways.

    Cultivation and Production of Tobacco

    • Historical Introduction: Tobacco was originally cultivated by Native Americans and brought to Europe in the 16th century. It was introduced to South Asia by European traders and colonizers, notably the Portuguese, Dutch, and British.
    • Economic Significance: Tobacco is a drought-tolerant crop providing livelihoods to many. It accounts for about 2% of India’s agricultural exports and employs over 45 million people.
    • Revenue Generation: The tobacco industry is a major source of revenue through taxation and exports, generating over ₹22,000 crores annually.

    Implications on Human Health

    • Health Issues: Tobacco use contributes to various cancers (lung, mouth, throat, oesophagus, pancreas, and bladder), respiratory diseases (COPD, emphysema, chronic bronchitis), cardiovascular problems (heart disease, stroke, hypertension), and other conditions like diabetes, infertility, weakened immune system, and complications in pregnancy.
    • Addiction: Nicotine, a highly addictive substance in tobacco, alters brain function leading to severe addiction.
    • Health Crisis: In India, tobacco use causes over 1.2 million deaths annually. It is responsible for 27% of all cancers and adds significant costs to healthcare and productivity losses, totaling approximately ₹1.82 trillion annually.

    Ethical and Revenue Considerations

    • Economic Benefits vs. Health Costs: While tobacco provides economic benefits and employment, it comes with tremendous human and financial costs due to tobacco-related illnesses.
    • Constitutional Provisions: Under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to life and health. The Directive Principles of State Policy mandate the state to improve public health and living standards.So,Govt. has responsibility to prevent tobacoo consumption.

    Indian needs to Stack Up Its Priorities

    • Institutional Conflict: The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) focuses on eliminating tobacco to mitigate health impacts, while the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) aims to increase tobacco crop yields.
    • Policy and Ethical Dilemma: The conflicting priorities between ICMR and ICAR create significant policy challenges. The constitutional mandate to prioritize public health should guide policy decisions.

    Will CRISPR make a difference?

    • Gene Editing Potential: CRISPR technology offers potential solutions by developing genetically modified tobacco plants with reduced nicotine content.
    • Research Developments: Studies have shown promise in using CRISPR to significantly lower nicotine levels in tobacco plants. However, further characterization is needed to ensure these modifications do not negatively impact other important traits.
    • Collaborative Efforts: Collaboration between ICMR and ICAR is crucial to align scientific advancements with public health goals and agricultural sustainability.

    The Tobacco Lobby and Surrogate Advertising

    • Circumventing Regulations: The tobacco industry employs surrogate advertising to promote its products despite stringent advertising bans. These tactics perpetuate tobacco consumption, especially among youth, undermining public health efforts.
    • Aggressive Lobbying: The tobacco industry has a large network of 1,027 registered lobbyists at the state level in 2024, many of whom are former government employees. They engage in extensive lobbying to weaken, delay or block life-saving tobacco control measures.

    Way forward: 

    • Implement Stricter Regulations: Enforce stringent regulations on tobacco advertising, including surrogate advertising, and ensure compliance through regular monitoring and penalties.
    • Ban on Public Smoking: Implement and strictly enforce smoking bans in public places to reduce exposure to second-hand smoke.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of the society? (UPSC IAS/2021)

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  • Citizenship and Related Issues

    How do Assam’s Foreigners Tribunals function? 

    Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

    Why in the news? 

    On July 5, the Assam government instructed the Border wing of the State police not to refer cases of non-Muslims who entered India illegally before 2014 to the Foreigners Tribunals (FTs).

    About Foreigners Tribunals: 

    • Foreigners Tribunals are quasi-judicial bodies established to determine if a person staying illegally in India is a “foreigner” or not.
    • They were set up under the Foreigners (Tribunals) Order, 1964, enacted by the central government under the Foreigners Act, 1946.
    • Initially, only the central government could set up these tribunals. But a 2019 amendment empowered district magistrates in all states and UTs to establish Foreigners Tribunals.
    • The tribunals have the powers of a civil court to summon witnesses, require document production, and examine evidence.

    Decision-Making Process of Foreigners Tribunals:

    • Referral: Individuals suspected of being foreigners are referred to FTs by local authorities or border police. This referral can be based on various factors, including lack of documentation or doubtful voter status.
    • Notice Issuance: Upon receiving a reference, the FT issues a notice to the person alleged to be a foreigner. This notice is served in English or the state’s official language.The person has 10 days to respond to the notice and an additional 10 days to submit evidence supporting their claim of citizenship.
    • Submission of Evidence: The individual must present evidence to prove their Indian citizenship. This may include documents like birth certificates, school certificates, land records, or other official records.
    • Verification: The tribunal examines the documents and evidence provided, and may call witnesses or seek additional information if necessary.
    • Hearing: The FT has the authority to summon and examine the individual on oath, and to require the production of additional documents. The tribunal operates with certain powers of a civil court.
    • Judgment: If the evidence provided is deemed insufficient to prove citizenship, the individual may be declared a foreigner. If evidence is adequate, the person is recognized as an Indian citizen.
    • Detention and Deportation: If declared a foreigner and unable to appeal successfully, the person may be sent to a detention center (transit camp) for deportation.

    Role of Border Police:

    • Detection and Referral: The Assam Police Border Organisation is responsible for detecting illegal foreigners and referring suspicious cases to FTs.
    • Patrolling and Defence: They patrol the India-Bangladesh border, work with the Border Security Force, and maintain a second line of defense.
    • Monitoring: They monitor people settled in riverine and char (sandbar) areas.
    • Cases of ‘D’ Voters: They refer cases of ‘D’ (doubtful) voters to FTs as directed by the Election Commission of India.
    • NRC Appeals: People excluded from the NRC can appeal to the FTs through this wing to prove their citizenship.

    Challenges and Criticisms:

    • Supreme Court Rulings: The Supreme Court has overturned FT orders citing grave miscarriages of justice, such as the wrongful declaration of a deceased farmer, Rahim Ali, as a foreigner.
    • Corruption and Malpractice: Observations have been made about corruption within the system, with allegations of notices being improperly served.

    Conclusion: Need to Implement stricter oversight and auditing of Foreigners Tribunals to ensure fairness and adherence to legal procedures. Regular reviews and monitoring can help prevent corruption and malpractice, ensuring that notices are properly served and tribunal processes are transparent.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q How far are India’s internal security challenges linked with border management particularly in view of the long porous borders with most countries of South Asia and Myanmar? (UPSC IAS/2013)

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  • Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

    The issue with India’s tree planting schemes

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the news? 

    India’s tree planting schemes have garnered attention as part of the country’s efforts to combat climate change and restore degraded ecosystems. However, these initiatives face several challenges and criticisms.

    Recent Trends of Special Conservation Drives:

    • Increased Initiatives: There has been a surge in global and national tree planting drives, such as the “One Trillion Project” by the World Economic Forum, Pakistan’s “10 Billion Tree Tsunami,” China’s “Great Green Wall,” and the “Bonn Challenge” to restore degraded landscapes.
    • High Media Attention: These drives often feature catchy slogans and glamorous campaigns that attract substantial media attention and public involvement.
    • Annual Events: India celebrates Van Mahotsava annually in July, aiming to promote tree planting and environmental conservation.

    Issues Associated with These Drives:

    • Limited Community Participation: Many programs lack significant involvement from local communities, affecting their effectiveness and sustainability.
    • Post-Planting Measures: Insufficient focus on post-planting care and monitoring hinders the success of tree planting efforts.
    • Monoculture Risks: Some drives promote monoculture, which can be detrimental to biodiversity and carbon sequestration.
    • Ecological Impact: Inappropriate tree planting in non-deforested areas like grasslands or animal habitats can damage ecosystems, increase wildfire risk, and exacerbate global warming.

    India’s Accountability and Challenges Toward Environmental Goals:

    • Achievements: India claims to have fulfilled its Paris Agreement commitments and achieved an additional carbon sink of 1.97 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
    • Encroachment and Loss: Approximately 10 million hectares of Indian forests are under encroachment, and about 5.7 million hectares have been lost for non-forestry purposes.
    • Dependence on Forests: Nearly 27.5 crore people rely on forests for subsistence, highlighting the importance of sustainable management.
    • Restoration Goals: India aims to restore 26 million hectares of degraded forests by 2030, but faces challenges such as encroachment and the need for effective tree planting strategies.

    Way forward: 

    • Community Involvement: Need to foster local participation in tree planting drives by involving communities in planning, execution, and ongoing maintenance.
    • Monitoring and Maintenance: Try to implement robust post-planting monitoring and care systems to ensure the survival and growth of planted trees.
    • Policy and Strategy Improvements: To address criticism of mass planting drives, India needs to prioritize adequate financing, active community participation, and technical considerations in forestry and restoration strategies.

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  • Capital Markets: Challenges and Developments

    Decline in popularity of Equity Linked Savings Schemes (ELSS)

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the News?

    • Equity Linked Savings Schemes (ELSS) are mutual fund schemes that offer tax benefits under Section 80C of the Income Tax Act.
      • Recently, ELSS has seen a decline in popularity, with more money being withdrawn from these schemes than invested.

    What is Section 80C of the Income Tax Act?

    • Section 80C permits certain investments and expenses to be tax-exempted.
    • By well-planning the 80C investments that are spread diversely across various options like National Savings Certificate (NSC), Unit Linked Insurance Plan (ULIP), Public Provident Fund (PPF), etc., an individual can claim deductions up to Rs 1,50,000.
    • By taking tax benefits under 80C, one can avail of a reduction in tax burden.

    About Equity Linked Savings Schemes (ELSS)

    • An ELSS fund or an equity-linked savings scheme is the only kind of mutual funds eligible for tax deductions under the provisions of Section 80C of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
    • Investors can claim a tax rebate of up to Rs 1,50,000 and save up to Rs 46,800 a year in taxes by investing in ELSS mutual funds.
    • ELSS mutual funds’ asset allocation is mostly (65% of the portfolio) made towards equity and equity-linked securities such as listed shares.
    • They may have some exposure to fixed-income securities as well.
    • These funds come with a lock-in period of 3 years only, the shortest among all Section 80C investments.
    • Being market-linked, they are subject to market risk, but may offer potentially higher returns compared to traditional tax-saving instruments like National Savings Certificate (NSC) or Public Provident Fund (PPF).

    Recent Trends in ELSS

    • In the past few months, more money has been taken out of ELSS than put in.
    • For example, last month ₹445 crore was withdrawn, while in April it was ₹144 crore.
    • In the last fiscal year, only ₹1,041 crore was invested in ELSS, compared to ₹7,744 crore the previous year.

    Impact of the New Tax Regime

    • A new tax regime was introduced in 2020-21, which is now the default option.
    • The old tax regime offered various tax exemptions and deductions, helping to reduce income tax.
    • These benefits are not available under the new tax regime, making ELSS less attractive to investors.

    PYQ:

    [2021] Indian Government Bond Yields are influenced by which of the following?

    1. Actions of the United States Federal Reserve
    2. Actions of the Reserve Bank of India
    3. Inflation and short-term interest rates

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    (a) 1 and 2 only
    (b) 2 only
    (c) 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

    What is OpenAI’s secret Project ‘Strawberry’?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    • US-based OpenAI emerged as a major player with its AI chatbot ChatGPT, capable of answering questions and processing images.
      • OpenAI is now reportedly developing a new AI model with improved reasoning capabilities, potentially changing the AI landscape.

    What is Project Strawberry?

    • Nearly six months ago, OpenAI’s secretive Project Q* (Q-Star) gained attention for its innovative approach to AI training.
    • OpenAI is now working on a new reasoning technology under the code name “Strawberry” believed to be the new name for Project Q*.
    • Strawberry aims to enable AI models to plan ahead, autonomously search the internet, and conduct deep research.

    What are Large Language Models (LLMs)?

    • LLMs are advanced artificial intelligence (AI) systems designed to understand, generate, and process human language.
    • They are built using deep learning techniques, particularly neural networks, and are trained on vast amounts of text data.

    Difference from Existing AI Models

    • Existing Large Language Models (LLMs) can summarize texts and compose prose but struggle with common sense problems and multi-step logic tasks.
    • Current LLMs cannot plan ahead effectively without external frameworks.
    • Strawberry models are expected to enhance AI reasoning, allowing for planning and complex problem-solving.
    • These models could enable AI to perform tasks that require a series of actions over an extended time, potentially revolutionizing AI’s capabilities.

    Potential Applications of Strawberry Models

    • Advanced AI models could conduct experiments, analyze data, and suggest new hypotheses, leading to breakthroughs in sciences.
    • In medical research, AI could assist in drug discovery, genetics research, and personalized medicine analysis.
    • AI could solve complex mathematical problems, assist in engineering calculations, and participate in theoretical research.
    • AI could contribute to writing, creating art and music, generating videos, and designing video games.

    Ethical Considerations  

    • Impact on Jobs: Improved AI capabilities may intensify concerns about job displacement and the ethical implications of AI reproducing human work.
    • Power Consumption and Ethics: The vast amounts of power required to run advanced AI models raise environmental and ethical questions.

    PYQ:

    [2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?

    1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units.
    2. Create meaningful short stories and songs.
    3. Disease diagnosis.
    4. Text-to-Speech Conversion.
    5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only
    (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
    (c) 2, 4 and 5 only
    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    845 Elephant Deaths recorded in Kerala in eight years

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    • Kerala’s forests have recorded 845 elephant deaths between 2015 and 2023.
      • Studies indicate an increasing trend in the death rate over time.

    Habitat and Population Challenges

    • Elephants face increasing vulnerability due to shrinking habitats and rising fragmentation exacerbated by climate change.
    • Factors contributing to their susceptibility include:
    1. Declining population sizes
    2. Sensitivity to high temperatures
    3. Competition from invasive plant species disrupting food sources
    4. Heightened susceptibility to diseases

    Elephant Mortality: Key Trends

    • Younger elephants, particularly those under 10 years of age, face the highest risk of mortality.
    • The mortality rate for calves is approximately 40%.
    • The increase in deaths among calves is primarily due to Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesviruses – Haemorrhagic Disease (EEHV-HD).

    Influence of Herd Size on Survival:

    • A recent study in Sri Lanka highlights potential mitigating factors against the herpesvirus.
    • Calves in larger herds exhibit better survival rates due to shared immunity.
    • Exposure to various virus strains within larger herds helps calves develop antibodies, improving their chances of survival.

    About Elephants in India

    Details
    Population Estimate
    • India hosts the largest population of wild Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus), with around 29,964 individuals,
    • Approximately 60% of the global population (2017 census).
    Leading States Karnataka holds the highest number of elephants, followed by Assam and Kerala.
    Conservation Status
    • IUCN Red List:  Endangered.
    • CMS: Appendix I.
    • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Listed under Schedule I,
    • CITES: Appendix I.
    Conservation Initiatives
    • Project Elephant launched in 1992, covering 23 states across India.
    • India is home to more than 60% of all wild Asian elephants.
    • Contributed to the increase in wild elephant population from around 25,000 in 1992 to about 30,000 in 2021.
    • Establishment of Elephant Reserves. Total 33 in numbers covering approximately 80,777 Sq.km.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:

    1. The leader of an elephant group is a female.
    2. The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.
    3. An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.
    4. Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 and 4 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 3 and 4 only

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

    Places in News: Niger, Ivory Coast and Pacific Island States

    world map | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    Details

    Niger
    • Turkish delegation visited to strengthen military cooperation with the junta, shifting alliances to Turkey and Russia.
    		 Geography: Landlocked in West Africa, bordered by Algeria, Libya, Chad, Nigeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, and Mali. Population ~26.3 million; capital Niamey.

    Key Points:

    • Gained independence from France in 1960.
    • Political instability with coups and a military junta in 2023.
    • It faces significant challenges including desertification, water scarcity, and economic development issues.
    • It is one of the world’s poorest nations despite having large uranium reserves.

    Ivory Coast
    • Recent discoveries have revealed substantial oil reserves estimated at six billion barrels, potentially making Ivory Coast a net oil exporter by the end of the decade.
    • The Baleine field, operated by Eni, aims to reach significant production levels by 2026.
    		 Geography: Located on the southern coast of West Africa; bordered by Liberia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, and the Gulf of Guinea. Population ~30.9 million; capital Yamoussoukro.

    Key Points:

    • Gained independence from France in 1960.
    • Experienced political instability, now relatively stable since 2016.
    • Fast-growing economy dependent on cocoa, coffee, and expanding into gold mining and oil refining.
    • Abidjan is a major hub for West African economic activities.

    Pacific Island States
    • Participated in a summit with Japan expressing concerns over military build-ups and the need for regional peace and security.
    • Geography: Vast region in the Pacific Ocean, categorized into Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia; diverse climates and ecosystems.
    • They face challenges such as climate change impacts, biodiversity loss, and varying levels of development.
    • Economic activities include tourism, agriculture (especially coconut and palm oil), and fishing.
    • These islands play a crucial role in global biodiversity and climate resilience efforts.

     

    PYQ: 

    [2022] Consider the following pairs:

    Region often mentioned in the news: Country

    1. Anatolia: Turkey
    2. Amhara: Ethiopia
    3. Cabo Delgado: Spain
    4. Catalonia: Italy

    How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

    (a) Only one pair

    (b) Only two pairs

    (c) Only three pairs

    (d) All four pairs

    [2018] Consider the following pairs:

    Towns sometimes mentioned in news: Country

    1. Aleppo: Syria

    2. Kirkuk: Yemen

    3. Mosul: Palestine

    4. Mazar-i-Sharif:  Afghanistan

    Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

    (a) 1 and 2

    (b) 1 and 4

    (c) 2 and3

    (d) 3 and 4

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  • e-Commerce: The New Boom

    The State of India’s Informal Economy    

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the news? 

    The NSSO’s 2021-22 and 2022-23 survey outcomes reveal effects of significant economic shocks due to demonetisation, GST implementation, and the COVID-19 pandemic on India’s economy.

    About NSSO: 

    • The NSSO is India’s premier agency for conducting large-scale nationwide sample surveys on socio-economic aspects that collects data on employment, consumption, health, education, and other areas to provide essential inputs for policy and planning.
    • The NSSO was merged with the Central Statistical Office in 2019 to form the National Statistical Office.

    Key highlight as per the recent survey by NSSO   

    • Impact of Economic Shocks: The surveys reflect the aftermath of major economic events such as demonetisation (November 2016), the rollout of GST (July 2017), and the COVID-19 pandemic (starting March 2020).
    • Employment Trends: There has been a noticeable decline in employment within the informal sector over the past seven years, with around 16.45 lakh jobs lost.
    • Sectoral Dynamics: The unincorporated manufacturing sector saw a significant contraction, with the number of enterprises declining by 9.3% from 19.7 million in 2015-16 to 17.82 million in 2022-23.

    What are unincorporated enterprises?  

    • Unincorporated enterprises are informal businesses not legally registered as companies.
    • They include MSMEs, household units, own-account enterprises, and partnerships, operating outside formal regulatory frameworks but contributing significantly to employment and economic activity.

    Why are these survey results important and what do they represent?  

    • Timely Insights: These survey results offer current data crucial for understanding the evolving role of the informal sector in job creation, particularly during economic slowdowns when formal sector employment may decline.
    • Impact Assessment: They provide a detailed analysis of how significant economic events like demonetisation, GST implementation, and the COVID-19 lockdowns have affected the informal sector, highlighting vulnerabilities and resilience.
    • Policy Relevance: The findings inform policymaking aimed at supporting and regulating the informal sector, ensuring that measures address its unique challenges and contributions to overall economic stability and inclusivity.

    What has been the pattern of ‘Informal Employment’ across states?

    • The data shows a mixed pattern across states, with 16 out of 34 states/UTs recording a decline in informal sector workers in 2022-23 compared to 2015-16.
    • Around 63 lakh informal enterprises shut down due to GST between 2015-16 and 2022-23, resulting in a loss of about 1.6 crore jobs.
    • The number of informal enterprises plunged from 50.32 lakh with 85.6 lakh workers in April-June 2021 at the peak of the COVID-19 second wave, to 1.91 crore firms with 3.12 crore employees in January-March 2022.

    Way Forward: 

    • The government should provide targeted support and incentives to help informal enterprises adapt to the post-GST and post-pandemic environment.
    • Policymakers should aim to facilitate a gradual transition of informal enterprises to the formal sector.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q How globalization has led to the reduction of employment in the formal sector of the Indian economy? Is increased informalization detrimental to the development of the country? (UPSC IAS/2016)

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  • Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

    On political representation of women  

    Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People’s Act

    Why in the News?

    In the recently concluded general elections in the U.K., a record 263 women MPs, making up 40% of the total, have been elected to the House of Commons.

    Political representation of Women in the world: 

    Have women been fairly represented in Parliament in independent India?

    Women were granted the right to vote from the First General Elections in 1952, yet their representation in the Lok Sabha has been low.

    • Statistics about women’s representation: The women’s representation in Lok sabha in between of  1952 and 2004 was about ranged from 5% to 10%.
      • The percentage women’s representation had increased to 12% in 2014 and stands at 13.6% in the 18th Lok Sabha while in the Rajya Sabha (upper house), the figure is 13%.
    • Constitutional Amendments: The 73rd and 74th amendments in 1992/1993 provided one-third reservation for women in panchayats and municipalities, but similar reservations for the Lok Sabha and State assemblies have not been successful until recently.

    Note: The global average of 26.9% of women in National parliaments.

    Women’s Representation in State Legislatures:

    • No state has more than 20% women representation in its legislative assembly.
    • Chhattisgarh has the highest representation with 18% women MLAs.
    • Himachal Pradesh has just one woman MLA and Mizoram has none.

    Should political parties provide internal reservations to increase women’s political participation?

    • Globally, higher representation for women is achieved through voluntary or legislated compulsory quotas for candidates within political parties or reserved seats in parliament.
    • So, quotas within political parties offer more democratic choices to voters and flexibility in candidate selection. It means quota in Political parties could be the most important step to increase women’s representation in Parliament.
    • Some parties, like Naam Tamilar Katchi in Tamil Nadu, have adopted voluntary quotas (50% for women candidates), but such measures alone have not significantly improved overall representation.

    When will the 106th constitutional amendment be implemented?

    • The 106th Amendment Act provides for 33% reservation for women in the Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies, including the Delhi Legislative Assembly.
    • The reservation will come into effect after an exercise of delimitation is undertaken following the first census conducted after the commencement of the 106th Amendment Act.
    • The women’s reservation will be in operation for a period of 15 years from its commencement.

    Way Forward: 

    • Public Awareness and Advocacy: Need to conduct widespread awareness campaigns to highlight the importance of gender equality in political representation.
    • Capacity Building and Support Mechanisms: Need to implement comprehensive capacity-building programs aimed at empowering women politically. For example,provide training in leadership skills, campaign management, and legislative processes.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q The reservation of seats for women in the institutions of local self-government has had a limited impact on the patriarchal character of the Indian Political Process.” Comment. (UPSC IAS/2019)

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  • Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

    Choosing the right track to cut post-harvest losses

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

    Why in the News? 

    India holds the position of the second-largest agricultural producer globally however, it only accounts for 2.4% of global agricultural exports, ranking eighth worldwide due to the post-harvest loss.

    A closer look at India’s post-harvest loss:

    • Economic Impact: India faces annual post-harvest losses amounting to approximately ₹1,52,790 crore, significantly impacting farmer incomes and the agricultural economy.
    • Perishable Commodities: The biggest losses occur in perishable commodities like livestock produce (22%), fruits (19%), and vegetables (18%). Export processes further add to these losses, particularly at the import-country stage.
    • Supply Chain Inefficiencies: There is Inefficiencies in storage, transportation, and marketing, alongside a lack of assured market connectivity, contribute to significant post-harvest losses. Small and marginal farmers, who make up 86% of the farming community, struggle with economies of scale and market access.

    Initiatives taken by the Railways Department:

    • Truck-on-Train Service: Indian Railways introduced the truck-on-train service, allowing loaded trucks to be transported on railway wagons. This service has been expanded following successful trials with commodities like milk and cattle feed.
    • Parcel Special Trains: During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Railways introduced parcel special trains to transport perishables and seeds between producers and markets, ensuring timely delivery and reducing post-harvest losses.
      • The DFI (Doubling farmers’ income) committee recommends streamlining loading and unloading processes to minimize transit times and address staffing shortages through recruitment and training initiatives.
    • Kisan Rail Scheme: It was launched to connect production surplus regions with consumption regions. This scheme facilitates the transportation of perishables (including milk, meat, and fish) more efficiently.
    • Specialized Wagons and Facilities: Investment in specialized wagons for temperature-controlled transport and establishing rail-side facilities for safe cargo handling are essential steps taken by the Railways.

    Way for Untapped Opportunities:

    • Enhanced Environmental Benefits: Rail transport generates up to 80% less carbon dioxide for freight traffic compared to road transport.
    • Public-Private Partnerships: The private sector can play a crucial role in enhancing operational efficiency and strengthening rail infrastructure through public-private partnerships, thereby improving the overall logistics ecosystem for agricultural produce.
    • Budgetary Support and Infrastructure Development: The budgetary allocation for agriculture in 2024 aims to bridge the farm-to-market gap with modern infrastructure and value-addition support.
    • Technology Integration: Incorporating advanced technologies like real-time tracking, temperature monitoring, and automated loading/unloading systems.

    Way forward: 

    • Expand climate-controlled storage facilities and cold storage capacity to accommodate a larger share of agricultural produce.
    • Provide small and marginal farmers access to storage facilities through cooperatives or subsidies.
    • Invest in specialized rail wagons for temperature-controlled transport and establish rail-side cargo handling facilities.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q How do subsidies affect the cropping pattern, crop diversity and economy of farmers? What is the significance of crop insurance, minimum support price and food processing for small and marginal farmers? (UPSC IAS/2017)

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  • Minority Issues – SC, ST, Dalits, OBC, Reservations, etc.

    The problems with sub-caste reservations

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has reserved its decision on sub-caste reservations for SC/STs. Any ruling on this matter must be substantiated not only legally but also academically.

    What is the Sub-categorization of castes?

    It refers to the practice of further dividing larger caste categories into smaller groups or sub-groups based on specific criteria such as socio-economic status, geographical location, historical background, or specific needs for policy implementation.

    Background of the Case:

    • The case involves the validity of sub-classification within the SC and ST categories for providing reservations in government jobs and education.
    • In 2004 Supreme Court strikes down Andhra Pradesh Scheduled Castes (Rationalisation of Reservations) Act, 2000, citing violation of the right to equality in the E.V. Chinnaiah v State of Andhra Pradesh case and emphasised that the SC list should be treated as a single, homogeneous group
      • Only Parliament has the power to sub-classify SCs and STs for reservations
      • The Supreme Court is now considering whether states have the power to create sub-classifications within these reserved categories.
    • The case stems from a 1975 Punjab government notification that divided its 25% reservation for SCs into two categories: half for Balmikis (Valmikis) and Mazhabi Sikhs, and the other half for the remaining groups within the SC category.

    Objectives behind the implementation of reservations and present SC scenario:

    • Objective of Reservations: The primary objective of reservations, as advocated by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, is to ensure equitable representation and opportunities for historically marginalized communities, particularly Scheduled Castes (SCs).
    • Present SC scenario: Despite reservations, certain sub-castes within SCs continue to face challenges in securing adequate representation in jobs and education. This under-representation is often attributed to factors such as inadequate educational opportunities, economic disparities, and historical discrimination.

    The policy of economic empowerment in India and its associated challenges:

    • Policies for Economic Empowerment: These policies complement reservations by focusing on enhancing the ownership of capital assets (like land and businesses) and improving educational attainment among SC individuals
      • For example, Self-Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers (SRMS), National Scheduled Castes Finance & Development Corporation (NSFDC) and National Safai Karamcharis Finance & Development Corporation (NSKFDC).
      • These policies are aimed at building capabilities and enabling greater participation in economic activities.
    • Challenges: There are challenges in implementing economic empowerment policies including inadequate access to credit and financial resources, lack of skill development initiatives, and persistent socio-economic barriers that hinder the upward mobility of SC communities.
      • Intersection with Reservations: Integrating economic empowerment with reservations is crucial to ensure that individuals from SC backgrounds not only secure reserved positions but also have the necessary skills and resources to thrive in competitive environments.

    What must be our focus? (Way Forward)

    • Holistic Approach: There is a need for a holistic approach that combines reservations with targeted economic and educational interventions. This approach should address both systemic discrimination and socio-economic barriers faced by SC communities.
    • Capacity Building: There should be emphasis on enhancing the educational infrastructure and skill development programs tailored to the needs of SC individuals.
    • Data-Driven Policy: The policy decisions related to sub-caste reservations should be informed by empirical data that assesses the actual impact of discrimination versus socio-economic factors on under-representation.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Whether National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) can enforce the implementation of constitutional reservation for the Scheduled Castes in the religious minority institutions? Examine (UPSC IAS/2018)

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    Cave on the Moon: What this discovery means for space exploration?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    • Scientists have confirmed the presence of a cave on the Moon, near the site of the first lunar landing 55 years ago.
    • This discovery could provide astronauts with a potential habitat on the Moon in the future.

    About the Cave on Mare Tranquillitatis

    • A study titled “Radar evidence of an accessible cave conduit on the Moon below the Mare Tranquillitatis pit” was published in the journal Nature Astronomy.
    • The study established the presence of a moon cave at the Sea of Tranquillity, a large, dark, basaltic plain on the Moon’s surface.
    • The cave is located 400 kilometers from where astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed in 1969.
    • It is roughly 45 meters wide and up to 80 meters long, with an area equivalent to 14 tennis courts.

    Research Method

    • Researchers analyzed photos taken in 2010 by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) spacecraft.
    • They concluded that the pit was the entry point to a cave created by the collapse of a lava tube, a tunnel formed when molten lava flows beneath a field of cooled lava.

    Back2Basics: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) 

    • NASA launched the LRO on June 18, 2009.
    • LRO’s primary mission is to map the Moon’s surface in high detail to identify safe landing sites and locate potential resources.
    • It is equipped with seven scientific instruments, including a camera, a laser altimeter, and a radiation detector.
    • LRO has provided critical data on lunar topography, temperature, and radiation levels, significantly enhancing our understanding of the Moon.

    Characteristics of Lunar Caves

    • Craters are bowl-shaped and result from asteroid or comet strikes.
    • Pits, in contrast, appear as massive steep-walled depressions.
    • At least 200 such pits have been discovered, with 16 believed to have formed from collapsed lava tubes due to volcanic activity over a billion years ago.

    Benefits for Human Exploration

    • The Moon is exposed to solar radiation 150 times stronger than Earth.
    • The lunar surface heats to about 127 degrees Celsius during the day and cools to around -173 degrees Celsius at night.
    • Caves, however, maintain stable average temperatures of around 17 degrees Celsius.
    • They could shield human explorers from radiation and micrometeorites, making them viable for future lunar bases or emergency shelters.

    Challenges and Further Research

    • The depth of such caves could present challenges for accessibility.
    • There are risks of potential avalanches and cave-ins.

    Need for Further Research

    • Further research is needed to understand and map the structural stability of the caves.
    • This could be done using ground-penetrating radar, robots, or cameras.
    • To become viable habitats, caves would need systems to monitor movement or seismic activity and safety zones for astronauts in case of a cave collapse.

    PYQ:

    [2008] Selene-1, the lunar orbiter mission belongs to which one of the following?

    (a) China

    (b) European Union

    (c) Japan

    (d) USA

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