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The Indian Armed forces are considering introducing Bhagwad Gita and Kautilya’s Arthashastra as part of the curriculum for Officers.

A few weeks back, the Prime Minister had stressed the importance of enhancing indigenization in the national security system, not only in sourcing equipment and weapons but also in the doctrines, procedures and customs practised in the armed forces.

What is a Military Doctrine?

• Military doctrine is the expression of how military forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements.
• It is a guide to action, rather than being hard and fast rules. Doctrine provides a common frame of reference across the military.

Why do we need such a doctrine?

• It helps standardize operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing military tasks.
• It decides what you buy, produce, or prioritize, all of which flows from deciding your best fighting foot.

Definitions worldwide

• Russia defines it as “a system of officially adopted State views on the preparation for armed defence and armed protection of the Russian Federation”.
• The NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) defines it as “fundamental principles by which the military forces guide their actions in support of objectives”.

Objectives of a military doctrine

• Doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice.
• Its objective is to foster initiative and creative thinking.
• It provides the military with an authoritative body of statements on how military forces conduct operations and provides a common lexicon for use by military planners and leaders.

India’s Military Doctrine

• The current combat doctrine of the Indian Army is based on the effective combined utilization of holding formations and strike formations.
• In the case of an attack, the holding formations would contain the enemy and strike formations would counter-attack to neutralize enemy forces.
• In the case of an Indian attack, the holding formations would pin enemy forces down whilst the strike formations attack at a point of Indian choosing.
• India’s nuclear doctrine follows the policy of credible minimum deterrence, No first strike, No use of nuclear weapons on Non-nuclear states and Massive nuclear retaliation in case deterrence fails.

India has (since 2004) adopted a new war doctrine known as “Cold Start” and its military has conducted exercises several times since then based on this doctrine.

India’s own: Cold Start Doctrine

• “Cold Start” involves joint operations between India’s three services and integrated battle groups for offensive operations.
• A key component is the preparation of India’s forces to be able to quickly mobilize and take offensive actions without crossing the enemy’s nuclear-use threshold.

Need for Indigenization of Military Doctrine

• To learn from others is laudable, but it prevents clarity on our innate strengths and capabilities.
• For instance, re-evaluate how the Himalayas remained India’s true frontier for decades.
• Using it as an advantage could translate into a series of airfields to quickly bring up men and material, while removing roads altogether.
• Let the enemy battle it out in the forests. Our advantage is in bringing forces to bear against a China with incredibly long logistics lines.

Decisive factors in India’s doctrine

• India is a country of continental size with land borders shared with a large number of countries, 1197 islands and a coastline of 7516 kilometres with a vast Exclusive Economic Zone.
• Despite her historically developed racial, cultural, linguistic and religious diversity, India is a nation with an innately all-embracing, secular polity that has welcomed and assimilated various cultures into her existing milieu.
• Her modern values are rooted in democratic governance and profound respect for human life.
• Defending India calls for defending her physical, economic and cultural identity in the prevalent geo-political milieu.

(a) Geopolitical scenario

• The geo-political scenario is fast changing and is likely to continue to do so in the coming decades.
• Although the USA remains the only super power today, the world is witnessing the emergence of various centres of power, with India emerging as one of the leading global players.
• Each centre of power is attempting to achieve a ‘balance of interest’ as opposed to the erstwhile ‘balance of power’.

(b) Economic scenario

• With market forces playing an important role, economic strength is likely to become the currency of power. National economies are undergoing liberalization to cater to globalization.
• The dominance of the developed world over the global economy is, nonetheless, likely to continue.
• Even so, China and India have been acknowledged as emerging economic powers.
• Economic linkages and inter-dependence amongst countries are likely to result in mutual security becoming an important issue.
• Water, energy sources (mainly oil) and even environmental issues may emerge as causes of future conflict between states.

(c) Security Scenario

• The security challenges facing India are varied and complex as it has two unsettled borders.
• The country has experienced four major conventional border wars besides an undeclared war fought in Kargil in 1999.
• It is engaged in an externally abetted proxy war for the last several years in Jammu and Kashmir and has been combating terrorism perpetuated by militant and terrorist groups sponsored by a foreign State.
• At the same time, a number of insurgencies, spurred by tribal and ethnic aspirations in addition to left wing ideologies are being tackled in various parts of the country.
• A number of nuclear weapon states are in India’s neighbourhood; hostile, radical or fundamentalist elements gaining access to and posing a threat with weapons of mass destruction (WMD) is also a possibility.

Way forward

• The first step in this process is of course the visualization of how the next conflict and future wars will unfold.
• The challenges are myriad and the views to meet these challenges are varied both in the manner it is to be done and the timing.
• It is also a fact that a template which is applicable to a particular country cannot be applied across the board as we are dictated by our own peculiarities of terrain, resources and adversaries.
• Major restructuring is the need of the hour and it would take time.
• However, let us not forget that of the four wars we have fought since Independence, we were victorious in three – surely, there are some good fundamentals on which Indian military and strategic thought have evolved.

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UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Based Most Probable Questions on Polity – by Sukanya Rana

Q1) Consider the following statements with respect to State Election Commission 

1. The functions of delimitation, reservation and rotation of local body election seats should be vested with the State Election Commission. 

2. It should submit its annual or special reports to the Election Commission of India and to the Governor. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

a. 1 only 

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

Q2) With respect to Schedules of Indian Constitution, consider the following statements: 

1. Fifth Schedule asks for annual reports from the Governors of each State having Scheduled Areas to the President. 

2. Sixth Schedule contains recommendations relating to the ability of the autonomous regions to frame land-use policies and policies related to reserved forests. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

a. 1 only 

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

Q3) Development and Welfare Board for Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Communities (DWBDNCs) works under the aegis of? 

a. Ministry of Home Affairs 

b. Ministry of Tribal Affairs 

c. Ministry of Rural Development 

d. Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment

Q4) With respect to One Nation One Ration Card Scheme, consider the following statements: 

a. The scheme is being implemented for nationwide portability of ration cards under National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013 

b. This system allows all NFSA beneficiaries, particularly migrant beneficiaries, to claim either full or part foodgrains from any Fair Price Shop (FPS) in the country 

c. The system also allows their family members back home, if any, to claim the balance foodgrains on same the ration card 

d. None of the above

Q5) With respect to the Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi (Amendment) Bill, 2021, consider the following statements: 

1. Bill provides that the term government referred to in any law made by the Legislative Assembly will imply Lieutenant Governor. 

2. The Bill prohibits the Legislative Assembly from making any rule to enable itself to consider the matters of day-to-day administration of the NCT of Delhi.

3. The bill states that the Lieutenant Governor‟s opinion must be obtained on every matter, before taking any executive action on the decisions of the Minister/ Council of Ministers. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

3 only 

1 and 2 only 

2 and 3 only 

1, 2 and 3

UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Most Probable Questions on Environment and Ecology – by Santosh Gupta

Q1) Consider the following statements regarding Global-Warming potential (GWP) 

1. It’s a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere. 
2. It is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide. 
3. A high GWP correlates with a low infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. 1 AND 2 

b. 2 AND 3 

c. 1 AND 3 

d. ALL OF THEM

Q2) Consider the following statements

1. While Clean  Development Mechanism(CDM) works under Kyoto Protocol, Sustainable development mechanism(SDM) is a mechanism to ensure implementation of SDGs targets. 
2. While Kyoto protocol ensure binding targets only for developed countries, Paris accord makes no such distinction. 

Which of the above statement/s  is/are true?

a. 1 only

b. 2 only

c. Both 1 and 2

d. None of them

Q3) Consider the following statements regarding United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): 

1. It was formed on the recommendations of the World Commission on Environment and Development. 
2. It is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development to sustainable land management. 
3. It has established the Global Mechanism (GM) to assist countries for mobilization of financial resources to address land degradation and drought. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. 1 and 3 only

b. 2 and 3 only

c. 1 and 2 only

d. All of them

Q4) Consider the following statements regarding GHG Platform India: 

1. 1. It is a joint initiative of NITI Aayog and the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. 
2. It will provide an estimation and analysis of India‘s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions across key sectors. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. 1 and 2

b. 1 only

c. 2 only

d. None of them

Q5) With reference to the Project Predator, consider the following statements: 

1. It is an initiative led by the United Nations Environment Programme. 
2. It aims to enhance governance and law enforcement capacity for the conservation of Asian big cats and other wildlife species. 
3. The project has its focus on the tiger range countries, including India. 

Which of the statements given above are correct?

a. 1 and 2 only

b. 2 and 3 only

c. 1 and 3 only

d. All of them 

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Important National Highways in India

• According to the Ministry of Roads, Transport and Highways (MoRTH), there are 599 National Highways in India. Over a period of time, the numbering of National Highways in India has been renewed. The total length of National Highways is 132500 Kms.
• National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) is an autonomous authority to develop, maintain, and manage the National Highways of India. Central Government has the power to notify any highway as the National Highway and such highway will be specified in the Schedule.
• The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways is responsible for the development of National Highways.
• The government launched the Bharatmala Project for the development of about 26,000 km length of Economic Corridors, which along with Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) and North-South and East-West (NS-EW) Corridors are expected to carry the majority of the Freight Traffic on roads.

National Highway	Length (in kilometers)	Route
NH 44 (old NH 7)	3,745	Srinagar to Kanyakumari
NH 27	3,507	Porbandar in Gujarat to Silchar in Assam
NH 48 (old NH 8)	2,807	Delhi to Chennai
NH 52	2,317	Sangrur, Punjab to Ankola, Karnataka
NH 30 (Old NH 221)	2,040	Sitarganj in Uttarakhand to Ibrahimpatnam in Andhra Pradesh.
NH 6	1,873	Jorabat in Meghalaya and terminates at Selling in Mizoram
NH 53	1,781	Hajira in Gujarat and Pradip port in Odisha.
NH 16 (Old NH 5)	1,711	East coast of West Bengal to Chennai in Tamil Nadu.
NH 66 (Old NH 17)	1,622	Panvel and terminates at Kanyakumari
NH 19 (Old NH 20)	1,435	Delhi to Kolkata
NH 34	1,426	Gangotri Dham in Uttarakhand to Lakhnadon in Madhya Pradesh

Operational National Waterways in India:

Sl. No.	NW Number	River System	Route	Length (in km)	Locations	Established
1	NW – 1	Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly	Prayagraj – Haldia	1620	Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal	1986
2	NW – 2	Brahmaputra	Sadiya-Dhubri	891	Assam	1988
3	NW – 3	West Coast Canal, Champakara Canal, and Udyogamandal Canal	Kottapuram – Kollam	205	Kerala	1993
4	NW – 4	Krishna and Godavari	Kakinada–Puducherry stretch of canals, Kaluvelly Tank, Bhadrachalam – Rajahmundry, Waziraba–Vijayawada	1095	Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Puducherry	2008
5	NW – 10	Amba River		45	Maharashtra
6	NW – 83	Rajpuri Creek		31	Maharashtra
7	NW – 85	Revadanda Creek – Kundalika River System		31	Maharashtra
8	NW – 91	Shastri river–Jaigad creek system		52	Maharashtra
9	NW – 68	Mandovi – Usgaon Bridge to the Arabian Sea		41	Goa
10	NW – 111	Zuari– Sanvordem Bridge to Marmugao Port		50	Goa
11	NW – 73	Narmada River		226	Gujarat and Maharashtra
12	NW – 100	Tapi River		436	Gujarat and Maharashtra
13	NW – 97 (Sundarbans Waterways)	Namkhana to AtharaBankiKhal	Indo-Bangladesh Protocol Route	172	West Bengal

List of New Waterways in India

State	No. of rivers/canal	Name of the River / Canal
Andhra Pradesh	2	Pennar and Tungabhadra
Arunachal Pradesh	1	Lohit
Assam	14	Aai, Barak, Beki, Dhansiri / Chathe, Dehing, Dikhu, Doyans, Gangadhar, Jinjiram, Kopili, Lohit, Puthimari, Subansiri and Tlwang (Dhaleswari)
Bihar	6	Gandak, Ghaghra, Karamnasa, Kosi, Punpun and Sone
Delhi	1	Yamuna
Goa	6	Chapora, Cumberjua, Mandovi, Mapusa, Sal and Zuari
Gujarat	5	Jawai-Luni – Rann of Kutch, Mahi, Narmada, Sabarmati and Tapi
Haryana	2	Indira Gandhi Canal and Yamuna
Himachal Pradesh	3	Beas, Ravi and Sutlej
Jammu & Kashmir	4	Chenab, Indus, Jhelum and Ravi
Jharkhand	2	Kherkai and Subarnarekha
Karnataka	11	Bheema, Ghataprabha, Gurupur, Kabini, Kali, Malaprabha, Netravathi, Panchagangavali (Panchagangoli), Sharavati, Tungabhadra and Udayavara
Kerala	4	AVM Canal, Alappuzha- Changanassery Canal, Alappuzha- Kottayam – Athirampuzha Canal and Kottayam-Vaikom Canal
		Amba, Arunawati – Aran, Dabhol Creek – Vashishti River, Kalyan-Thane-Mumbai Waterway – Vasai Creek – Ulhas River, Manjara, Nag, Narmada, Penganga – Wardha, Rajpuri Creek, Revadanda Creek – Kundalika River, Savitri (Bankot Creek), Shastri River – Jaigad Creek, Tapi and Wainganga – Pranahita
Maharashtra	14
Meghalaya	5	Ganol, Jinjiram, Kynshi, Simsang and Umngot (Dawki)
Mizoram	1	Tlwang (Dhaleswari)
Nagaland	1	Tizu – Zungki
Odisha	5	Baitarni, Birupa – Badi Genguti – Brahmani, Budha Balanga, Mahanadi and Subarnarekha
Punjab	3	Beas, Indira Gandhi Canal and Sutlej
Rajasthan	3	Indira Gandhi Canal, Jawai-Luni – Rann of Kutch and Luni
Tamil Nadu	9	AVM Canal, Bhavani, Kaveri – Kollidam, Manimutharu, Palar, Pazhyar, Ponniyar, Tamaraparani and Vaigai
Telangana	5	Bheema, Manjara, Penganga – Wardha, Tungabhadra and Wainganga – Pranahita
Uttar Pradesh	10	Asi, Betwa, Chambal, Gandak, Ghaghra, Gomti, Karamnasa, Tons, Varuna and Yamuna

Transportation plays an important role in the development of a country and it is of great significance for a developing country like India. The country is bestowed with a plethora of diverse topography which enables different kinds of transportation. India has about 14500 km of navigable waterways. This includes rivers, backwaters, canals, creeks, and so on.

• National Waterways Act came into effect in 2016. It proposed 106 additional National Waterways and merges 5 existing Acts which were declared the 5 National Waterways. As a result, 106 new waterways were identified by IWAI and intimated to MoS. In this regard, the National Waterways Act, 2016 was published in the Gazette of India, Extraordinary, Part II, Section I dated 26th March, 2016 as an Act No. 17 of 2016
• In 1986, the Government of India created the Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) for regulation and development of Inland Waterways for navigation and shipping.
• Out of the 111, National Waterways declared under the National Waterways Act, 2016, 13 are operational for shipping and navigation and cargo/passenger vessels are moving on them.

Major Sea Ports in India 

Major Sea Ports  Currently, there is a total of 13 major seaports in India currently among which 12 are government-controlled and one, Ennore port of Chennai is the corporate one. These are located in the 9 coastal Indian states (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and West Bengal).

S. No.	State	Name of Port	Points to Remember
1.	Kerala	Kochi Port or Cochin Port	located on the Willington island on the South-Western coast of India The port is generally called as the natural gateway for the industrial and agricultural produce markets of South-West India. Exports of spices, tea, and coffee. It is one of the centers for shipbuilding.
2.	Tamil Nadu	Ennore	India’s First corporatized port and 12th major port of India. It is located on the Coromandel Coast about 24 km north of the Chennai Port. Trades: Iron Ore, Coal, petroleum products and chemicals
3.	West Bengal	Haldia	Situated on Hugli river Formed to relieve pressure on Kolkata port
4.	West Bengal	Kolkata Port	It is the only riverine major port in India. Known for twin dock systems viz. Kolkata Dock on the eastern bank and Haldia Dock on the western bank of river Hooghly Trade: Jute, tea, Coal, Steel
5.	Gujarat	Kandla	Known as Tidal Port located in the Gulf of Kutch It was constructed after partition when Karachi Port was transferred to Pakistan. It also relieves the congestion of Mumbai Port Largest port by volume of cargo handled. It has been acknowledged as Trade Free Zone
6.	Karnataka	Mangalore	It is deep water, all weathered port. Deals with the iron ore exports It is the only major port of the coastal state of Karnataka.
7.	Goa	Marmagoa	Situated on the estuaries of the river Juari It is a natural harbour It was awarded the status of a major port in the year 1963. It is a leading iron ore exporting port in India.
8.	Maharashtra	Mumbai	Largest Natural Port and harbor In India  Earlier, this port location was used by the navies of Shivaji. This port has 3 enclosed wet docks:  Prince’s Dock Victoria Dock Indira Dock The busiest Port in India Jawahar Dweep is an island in the harbor, for Crude and petroleum products handling.
9.	Maharashtra	Jawaharlal Nehru Port or Nhava Sheva Port	Largest Artificial Port and also the largest container port of India. The name Nhava Sheva is given because of the names of two villages that existed in that area. It is located on the eastern shore of Mumbai harbor off Elephanta Island and can be accessed via Thane Creek. This port is the terminal point of the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor of Indian Railways. Trade: Textiles, sporting goods, carpets, pharmaceuticals, chemicals etc.
10.	Odisha	Paradip	First Major Port commissioned after Independence. Located at the confluence of Mahanadi river and Bay of Bengal. deals with the export of iron and aluminum and Iron ore is exported to Japan in huge quantity.
11.	Tamil Nadu	Tuticorin	This port has been renamed as V.O.Chidambaranar Port. It is an artificial port located in the Gulf of Mannar. It is famous for pearl fishery in the Bay of Bengal and thus also known as the pearl city. Trade:  coal, salt, petroleum products, and fertilizers
12.	Andhra Pradesh	Vishakapatnam	This port is a natural harbor and also is the 2nd largest port by volume of cargo handled.  Port is located midway between the Chennai Port and Kolkata Port. Trade: Iron Ore, Coal, Alumina and oil.
13.	Tamil Nadu	Chennai	Chennai Port is the largest port on the East coast i.e. Bay of Bengal and the second largest port of India after JNPT. Artificial port.

---

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UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Based Most Probable Questions on Polity || by Sukanya Rana

Q1) Consider following statements with respect Collegium System in Judicial Appointments

1. A Supreme Court collegium is led by its Chief Justice and four other senior most judges of that court.
2. Names recommended for appointment by a High Court collegium reaches the government only after approval by the CJI and the Supreme Court collegium.
3. Government cannot raise any objections and seek no clarifications regarding the Collegium’s choices.

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?

A. 1 and 2 only

B. 1 and 3 only

C. 2 and 3 only

D. 1, 2 and 3

Q2) Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct with respect to Rohini Commission

1. It was established to work out the mechanism in a scientific approach for sub-categorisation within OBCs.
2. It recommended 33% reservation in jobs and education under the central and state government for OBCs.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

A. 1 only

B. 2 only

C. Both 1 and 2

D. Neither 1 nor 2

Q3) Consider the following statements with respect to DNA Technology Bill

1. Under the Bill, DNA testing is allowed only in respect of matters listed in the Schedule to the Bill.
2. The Bill provides for the establishment of a National DNA Data Bank and Regional DNA Data Banks, for every state, or two or more states.

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?

A. 1 only

B. 2 only

C. Both 1 and 2

D. Neither 1 nor 2

Q4) Which of the following statements are incorrect with respect to Registered Unrecognised Political Parties

1. These are political parties which have contested at least in one Assembly or General Elections since being registered.
2. These Parties do not enjoy all the benefits extended to the recognised parties.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

A. 1 only

B. 2 only

C. Both 1 and 2

D. Neither 1 nor 2

Q5) Consider the following statements with respect to Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT)

1. It exercises original jurisdiction in relation to recruitment and all service matters of all-India services, the Central civil services, civil posts under the Centre and members of the defence forces.
2. The appeals against the orders of the CAT could be made only in the Supreme Court and not in high courts.

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are incorrect?

A. 1 only

B. 2 only

C. Both 1 and 2

D. Neither 1 nor 2

UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Most Probable Questions on Environment and Ecology || by Santosh Gupta

Q1) Which of the following are related to Ozone depletion?

1. Montreal Protocol
2. Kyoto Protocol
3. Vienna Convention
4. Kigali agreement

Which of the above statements are true?

A. 1, 2 and 3 only

B. 2, 3 and 4

C. 1, 3 and 4 only

D. All of them

Q2)  How does the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) help in protecting Indian agriculture? 

1. NBA checks the biopiracy and protects the indigenous and traditional genetic resources. 

2. NBA directly monitors and supervises the scientific research on genetic modification of crop plants. 

3. Application for intellectual Property Rights related to genetic resources cannot be made without the approval of NBA.

4.  NBA was set up under obligation for Convention on biological diversity 

Which of the above statements are true?

A. 1 and 2 only

B. 2 and 3 only

C. 1,3 and 4

D. all of them 

Q3) Which of the following is related to protection of biodiversity?

1. Convention of biological diversity

2. Nagoya protocol

3. Aichi targets

4. Minamata convention

5. UNESCO world heritage convention

Which of the above statements are true? 

A. 1, 2 and 3 only

B. 2, 3 and 4 ony

C All of them

D. 1, 2, 3 and 5

Q4)  Consider the following regarding outcomes of Rio earth summit, 1992

1. Agenda 21
2. Convention on biological diversity
3. UNFCCC
4. Foundation of IPCC
5. Global Environment Facility (GEF)

Which of the above statements are true?

A. 1, 2 and 3 

B. 2, 3 and 4 only

C. 1, 2, 3 and 5 only

D. All of them

Q5)  Which of the following  are true about the aims of the Basel Convention? 

1. The reduction of all hazardous waste generation 

2. The restriction of trans-boundary movements of hazardous wastes including radioactive waste. 

3. Creating a Regulatory system for trans boundary movement 

4.  Promote information sharing through prior informed consent

Which of the above statements are true?

A. 1 and 2 only

B. 2 and 3 only

C. 1 ,2 and 4 only

D. 1, 3 and 4 only

04th Sept 2021

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Cropping Pattern in India

Back to Basics: Cropping Pattern mean the proportion of area under different crops at a point of time, changes in this distribution overtime and factors determining these changes.

Cropping pattern in India is determined mainly by rainfall, climate, temperature and soil type.

Technology also plays a pivotal role in determining crop pattern. Example, the adoption of High Yield Varieties Seeds along with fertilisers in the mid 1960’s in the regions of Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh increased wheat production significantly.

The multiplicity of cropping systems has been one of the main features of Indian agriculture. This may be attributed to following two major factors:

1. Rainfed agriculture still accounts for over 92.8 million hectares or 65 percent of the cropped area. A large diversity of cropping systems exists under rainfed and dryland areas with an overriding practice of intercropping, due to greater risks involved in cultivating larger area under a particular crop.
2. Due to prevailing socio-economic situations (such as; dependency of large population on agriculture, small land-holding size, very high population pressure on land resource etc.), improving household food security has been an issue of supreme importance to many million farmers of India, who constitute 56.15 million marginal (<1.0 hectare), 17.92 million small (1.0-2.0 hectare) and 13.25 million semi-medium (2.0-4.0 hectare) farm holdings, making together 90 percent of 97.15 million operational holdings.
3. An important consequence of this has been that crop production in India remained to be considered, by and large, a subsistence rather than commercial activity.

What are the types of cropping System?

Different types of cropping systems are adopted on farms depending on the resources and technology available. The different & basic types of cropping System is explained below:

Mono-cropping: If only one crop is grown in the land season after season, it is referred to as Monocropping. Example: Wheat will be planted year after year in the same field. 

Crop Rotation: In this method, the type of crops grown in the field is changed each season or each year. farmers also change from crops to fallow. Example: Maize will be planted in the first year and beans in the second year. This Crop rotation system is a key principle of agriculture conservation as it improves the soil structure and fertility. It also helps to control weeds, pests, and diseases.

Sequential Cropping: This system involves growing two crops in the same field, one after the other in the same year. Example: Planting maize during long rains, then beans during the short rains. 

Inter-cropping: Growing two or more crops in the same field at the same time is called Intercropping. Examples: Planting alternating rows of maize and beans, or growing a cover crop in between the rows. 

Mixed Intercropping: In this method, seeds of two crops are distributed or dibbling the seeds without any row arrangement. This method is called mixed intercropping. This method is easy to sow but makes weeding, fertilization, and harvesting difficult. 

Multiple-Cropping: In this cropping system, farmers grow two or more crops on farmland in one year with intensive input management practices. It includes inter-cropping, mixed-cropping, and sequence cropping.

Row Intercropping: In this method, both the main crop and the intercrop in rows are planted. The row intercropping makes weeding and harvesting easier than with mixed intercropping.

Stir Cropping: This type of cropping involves planting broad strips of several crops in the field. Each strip will be 3–9 m wide. On slopes, the strips are laid out along the contour to prevent erosion. The farmer can rotate crops by planting each strip with a different crop in the next year. Example: Alternating strips of maize, soybean, and finger millet are planted. 

Relay Cropping: In this method, one crop is planted and another crop, usually a cover crop, is planted in the same field before harvesting the first. It avoids competition between the main crop and the intercrop. Relay cropping uses the field for a long time since the cover crop usually continues to grow after the main crop is harvested.

In Indian agriculture, three types of Cropping System is used. They are:

• Mono-Cropping

• Inter-cropping

• Multiple-Cropping

Factors Determining Cropping Pattern in India

Cropping Pattern in India

30 most important cropping patterns in India

Specific Issues Related to the Cropping Pattern

Crop Pattern	Region/State	Issues Related to Crop Pattern
Rice-Wheat	UP, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh.	Over the years there is stagnation in the production and productivity loses.   The main reasons for stagnation are: Over Mining of Nutrients from the soil. Declining Ground Water Table. Increase Pest Attacks and Diseases. Shortages of Labour. Inappropriate use of Fertilizers.
Rice-Rice	Irrigated and Humid coastal system of Orrisa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala.	The major issues in sustaining the productivity of rice-rice system are:   Deterioration in soil physical conditions. Micronutrient deficiency. Poor efficiency of nitrogen use. Imbalance in use of nutrients. Non-availability of appropriate trans planter to mitigate labour shortage during the critical period of transplanting.
Rice- Groundnut	Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orrisa and Maharashtra.	The major issues in the pattern are:   Excessive Rainfall and Water Logging. Non-availability of quality seeds. Limited expansion of Rabi Groundnut in Rice grown areas.
Rice-Pulses	Chhattisgarh, Orrisa and Bihar.	Factors limiting Productivity are:   Droughts and Erratic Rainfall distribution. Lack of Irrigation. Low coverage under HYV Seeds. Weed Attacks. Little attention to pest attacks and diseases. Marginalisation of land and Removal of Tribal from their own land.
Maize-Wheat	UP, Rajasthan, MP and Bihar	The Reason for Poor Yields are:   Sowing Timing. Poor Weed Management. Poor Plant Varieties. Poor use of organic and inorganic fertilizers. Large area under Rain Fed Agriculture.
Sugarcane-Wheat	UP, Punjab and Haryana accounts for 68% of the area under sugarcane.   The other states which cover the crops are; Karnataka and MP.	Problems in Sugarcane-Wheat system are:   Late Planting. Imbalance and inadequate use of nutrients. Poor nitrogen use efficiency in sugarcane. Build-up of Trianthema partu lacastrum and Cyprus rotundus in sugarcane. The stubble of sugarcane pose tillage problem for succeeding crops and need to be managed properly.
Cotton-Wheat	Punjab, Haryana, West UP, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.	Problems in Cotton-Wheat system are:   Delay Planting. Stubbles of cotton create the problem of tillage operations and poor tilth for wheat. Cotton Pest like Boll Worm and White Fly. Poor nitrogen use efficiency in cotton.
Soya bean-Wheat	Maharashtra, MP and Rajasthan	Constraints limiting the soybean production and productivity are:   A relatively recent introduction of soybean as a crop. Limited genetic diversity. Short growing period available in Indian latitudes. Hindered agronomy/availability of inputs at the farm level. Rainfed nature of crop and water scarcity at critical stage of plant growth. Insect pests and diseases, Quality improvement problems. Inadequate mechanization and partial adoption of technology by farmers have been identified.
Legume Based Cropping Systems (Pulses-Oilseeds)	MP, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.	The major issues in Legume based system are:   Lack of technological advancement. Loses due to erratic weather and waterlogging. Diseases and Pests. Low harvest index, flower drop, indeterminate growth habit and very poor response to fertilizers and water in most of the grain legumes. Nutrient needs of the system have to be worked out considering N-fixation capacity of legume crops.

Horticulture Crops in India

India has made a good place for itself on the Horticulture Map of the World with a total annual production of horticultural crops touching over 1490 million tones during 1999-00.

The horticultural crops cover about 9 percent of the total area contributing about 24.5 percent of the gross agricultural output in the country. However, the productivity of fruits and vegetables grown in the country is low as compared to developed countries.

Vegetable Crops

Vegetable crops in India are grown from the sea level to the snowline. The entire country can broadly be divided into six vegetable growing zones:

Low productivity is the main feature of vegetable cultivation in India as farm yields of most of the vegetables in India are much lower than the average yield of the world and developed countries.

The productivity gap is more conspicuous in tomato, cabbage, onion, chilli and peas. The preponderance of hybrid varieties and protected cultivation are mainly responsible for high productivity in the developed countries.

Constraints in vegetable production:

1. Lack of planning in Production

2. Non-availability of seeds of improved varieties.

3. High cost of basic production elements

4. Inadequate plant protection measures and non-availability of resistant varieties.

5. Weak marketing facilities

6. Transportation limits

7. Post-harvest losses

8. Abiotic stresses.

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04 Sept 2021

Ocean Currents are influenced by 2 kinds of forces.

1. Primary or Causation forces – that initiate the movement of water.
2. Secondary forces – that modify the flow of the waters.

Primary forces 

The ocean is driven by the atmosphere above it in 2 ways

1. Wind Stress or Frictional Drag – Friction between wind and oceans creates a frictional drag known as wind stress. It impacts the upper 100m of the ocean surface and sets the water in motion.

2. Insolation – Heating by solar energy. The heating causes water to expand.

>Causes water to expand. In the equatorial regions, the height is 8cm higher. This causes a slight gradient and water tend to flow down the slope.

>Causes precipitation and evaporation which changes the salinity and hence the density of water.

Secondary forces

1. Coriolis Force – The effects of this force has been discussed in atmospheric circulations. It causes winds to deflect toward the right in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere, resulting in curved paths. It has a similar impact on Ocean Currents deflecting them to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

2. Gravity – Gravity acts on the density difference of water. Density is a function of temperature and salinity and insolation, precipitation and evaporation play an important role.

3. Shape of the ocean basin –

*NCERT somewhat differs in its definition of Primary and Secondary forces, but the above classification is apter.

Types of Ocean Currents

There are 2 types of Ocean Currents

1. Surface Currents also called Wind-Driven Currents 

The Surface Currents are a result of the Wind-stress and are modified by Coriolis force. Hence Surface currents mimic Atmospheric Wind Circulations. The diagram below shows how Easterlies are in line with the equatorial current, the Westerlies are in line with Kuroshio and Gulf Stream.

Ocean currents are constrained by the continental masses that border the three major oceans. This causes slight variations in their movement.

To understand the mechanism, we touch upon few concepts.

Ekman Spiral

Ekman Spiral is the result of Coriolis force on the movement of surface water. The wind stress moves the uppermost layer of water. This layer, in turn, drags the layer below it. Each deeper layer moves more slowly than the layer above it until the movement ceases at a depth of about 100 meters.

All layers of water are deflected by Coriolis force to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. As a result, each successive layer moves 45 deg. to the direction of drag force being applied. The diagram below captures this aptly. This creates a twisting effect creating the spiral. The spiral is known as Ekman Spiral and each subsequent layer is called the Ekman Layer.

The average movement of all the layers comes out to be 90 deg to the direction of the surface wind.

Gyres

Ekman Spiral gives rise to ‘Gyres’. These are ocean-circling currents that occur north and south of the equator. They do not occur at the equator, where the Coriolis effect is not present. There are five in all: two in the Pacific – north, and south of the equator, two in the Atlantic, and one in the Indian Ocean, south of the equator. In the northern Indian Ocean, the landmasses of Asia prevent the formation of a full gyre. Instead, there is a seasonally reversible current, driven by the Monsoon winds.

Surface ocean currents are further divided into warm and cold currents

2. Deep-water Currents also called Thermohaline Currents –

While wind effects drive ocean currents in the upper 100 meters of the ocean’s surface, ocean currents also flow thousands of meters below the surface. These deep-ocean currents are driven by differences in the water’s density, which is controlled by temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline). This process is known as thermohaline circulation.

Cold, salty water is dense and sinks to the bottom of the ocean, and eventually returns to the surface through mixing. On a global scale, this sinking and rising of ocean water create what scientists call the ‘great ocean conveyor belt.’

Case Study: The Gulf Stream

Gulf Stream is where you don’t see a clear-cut distinction between the Wind-Driven and Thermohaline. The first part of the Gulf Stream that represents the warm waters to a certain extent are Wind Driven

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UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Based Most Probable Questions – by Sukanya Rana

Q1) By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on Earth:

a) water vapour>co2>ch4>o3

b) co2>water vapour>ch4>o3

c) co2>ch4> o3>water vapour

d) water vapour>co2>o3>ch4

Q2) Which of the following is a disadvantage of renewable energy?

a) High pollution

b) Available only in few places

c) High running cost

d) Unreliable supply

Q3) Consider the following statements with respect to International Nitrogen Initiative (INI) 

1. It was set up in 2003 under UNESCO’s International Geosphere Biosphere Program (IGBP). 

2. INI conferences will be held every three years on different continents. 

3. INI 2021 is being hosted by India’s Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

a) 2 only 

b) 1 and 3 only 

c) 2 and 3 only 

d) 1, 2 and 3

Q4) Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in which of the following states? 

a) Telangana 

b) Andhra Pradesh 

c) Maharashtra 

d) Jharkhand

Consider the following statements: 

1. It is surrounded by the Phipsoo Wildlife Sanctuary to its north, the Buxa Tiger Reserve to its west and the Manas National Park to its east.

2. The National Park, which has 11 different forest types and subtypes, is home to the golden langur, elephant, tiger, clouded leopard and Indian gaur. 

Q5) Identify the National Park using the description given above: 

a) Rajbari National Park 

b) Mouling National Park 

c) Raimona National Park 

d) Saddle Peak National Park

UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Most Probable Questions on Environment & Ecology for UPSC Prelims 2021 – by Santosh Gupta

Q1) Consider the following statements in context to Indian pangolin. 

1. They are critically endangered. 

2. The Indian pangolin is found in India and Pakistan only. 

3. They are protected under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). 

Select the correct code from the codes given below.

a) 1 and 2 only

b) 2 and 3 only

c) 3 only

d) All of them

Q2) Select the correct statement/s in context to Fresh water crocodiles

1. India has two species of freshwater crocodiles 

2. It prefers fast moving water. 

3. Now it is only found in Chambal river sanctuary

Which of the above statements are true?

a) 1 and 2 only

b) 2 and 3 only

c) 1 only

d) All of them

Q3) With reference to sea cows. i. e., ‘dugong’, a mammal found in India, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. It is a herbivore feeding on seagrass

2. These mammals are found only in warm

coastal waters of the Indian Ocean.

3. It is listed as endangered  in the IUCN

Red List.

Select the correct answer using the code

given below.

a) 1 and 2 only

b) 1 and 3 only

c) 1 only

d) 1, 2 and 3

Q4) Identify the correct statement/s in context to Hoolock Gibbons. 

1. Hoolock Gibbons are the only species of apes found in India. 

2. They can live in high temperature conditions. 

3. It is found in the Southern part of India.

Which of the above statements are true?

a) 1 and 2 only

b) 2 and 3 only

c) 1 only

d) All of them 

Q5) Which of the following species is/are now

extinct in the wild in India?

1. Indian Cheetah

2. Pink-headed duck

3. Dodo bird

4. Siberian crane

Select the correct answer using the code

given below.

a) 1 and 3 only

b) 1 and 2 only

c) 2, 3  and 4 only

d) 1, 2 and 3

Daily Dose: Complete Snapshots of Everyday News – by Shweta Mishra

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03 Sept 2021

Soil Characteristics

Knowing a soil’s water, mineral, and organic components and their proportions can help us determine its productivity and what the best use for that soil may be. Several soil properties that can be readily tested or examined are used to describe and differentiate soil types. The most important properties are discussed below:

1. Colour: A soil’s colour is generally related to its physical and chemical characteristics. E.g.

• Soils rich in humus tend to be dark because decomposed organic matter is black or brown. Soils with high humus content are usually very fertile, so dark brown or black soils are often referred to as ‘rich’. [Note – Some dark soils may be dark because of other soil forming factors and may have little or no humus]
• Red or yellow soils typically indicate the presence of iron.

2. Texture: The soil texture refers to the coarseness/fineness of the mineral matter in the soil. It is determined by the proportion of the sand, silt and clay particles:

1. Clay: Particle Size – diameters less than 0.002 millimetre
2. Silt: Particle Size – diameters between 0.002 millimetres to 0.05 millimetres.
3. Sand: Particle Size – diameters between 0.05 and 2 millimetres.

[Rocks larger than 2 millimetres are regarded as pebbles, gravel, or rock fragments and technically are not soil particles.]

Note: Clay being the finest of all plays the most important role in soil chemistry (offers more surface area).

The proportions of each of these soil fractions determine soil texture and its properties.

The soil texture directly affects:

• The soil water content
• Water flow
• Retention of nutrients
• Extent of aeration

Loamy Soil: Loamy soil is the one in which none of the three (sand/silt/clay) dominates the other two. In particular, loamy soil has about 40% sand, 40%silt, and 20% clay.

Note: Generally speaking, Good Soils = Clay + Humus. The clay-humus complex is essential for a fertile soil as it provides it with a high water and nutrient holding capacity. Humus acts as a cement binding the soil particles together and thus reducing the risk of erosion.

3. Structure :

While the soil texture describes the size of soil particles, soil structure refers to the arrangement of the soil particles. The way in which sand, silt, clay and humus bond together is called soil structure. Structure can partially modify the effects of soil texture.

Some structural characteristics of soil:

• Permeability – The ease with which liquids/gases can pass through rocks or a layer of soil is called permeability. It depends on the size, shape and packing of particles. It is usually greatest in sandy soils and poor in clayey soils.
• Porosity – The volume of water which can be held within a soil is called its porosity. It is expressed as a ratio of volume of voids (pores) to the total volume of the material.

• Note: Most porous rocks are permeable with the exception of clay in which pore spaces are so small that they are often sealed with groundwater held by surface tension. Another exception – granite is non-porous but permeable. It is a crystalline rock and hence non-porous. Its individual crystals absorb little or no water but the rock may have numerous joints/ cracks through which the water can pass rendering it permeable.
• A soil with high organic content also tends to have high porosity.

4. Soil Chemistry – Acidity or Alkalinity:

An important aspect of soil chemistry is acidity, alkalinity (baseness), or neutrality.

Low pH values indicate an acidic soil, and a high pH indicates alkaline conditions. Most complex plants grow only in the soils with levels between pH 4 and pH 10 but optimum pH varies with the plant species.

• In arid and semi-arid regions, soils tend to be alkaline and soils in humid regions tend to be acidic.
• To correct soil alkalinity and to make the soil more productive, the soil can be flushed with irrigation water.
• Strongly acidic soils are also detrimental to plant growth, but soil acidity can generally be corrected by adding lime to the soil.

Now that we are done with the basics, let’s move on to the soils of India!

Soils of India

India has varied relief features, landforms, climatic realms and vegetation types. These have contributed to the development of various types of soils in India.

Various classifications adopted to study the Indian Soils:

1. In ancient times, soils used to be classified into two main groups:

• Urvara (i.e. fertile), and
• Usara (i.e. sterile)

2. In the 16th century A.D., soils were classified on the basis of their inherent characteristics and external features such as texture, colour, the slope of land and moisture content in the soil.

• Based on texture, main soil types were identified as sandy, clayey, silty and loam, etc.
• On the basis of colour, they were red, yellow, black, etc.

3. The National Bureau of Soil Survey and the Land Use Planning an Institute under the control of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) did a lot of studies on Indian soils. In their effort to study soil and to make it comparable at the international level, the ICAR has classified the Indian soils on the basis of their nature and character as per the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil Taxonomy.

Chief characteristics of these are:

• Entisols – Immature soils that lack the vertical development of horizons. These soils are often associated with recently deposited sediments from wind, water, or ice erosion. Given more time, these soils will develop into another soil type.
• Inceptisols – young soils that are more developed than entisols.
• Vertisols – heavy clay soils that show significant expansion and contraction due to the presence or absence of moisture. These are common in areas that have shale parent material and heavy precipitation.
• Aridisols – soils that develop in very dry environments.
• Ultisols – associated with humid temperate to tropical climates. Warm temperatures and the abundant variability of moisture enhance the weathering process and increase the rate of leaching in these soils.
• Mollisols – soils common to grassland environments

4. On the basis of genesis, colour, composition and location, the soils of India have been classified into:

(i) Alluvial soils

(ii) Black soils

(iii) Red and Yellow soils

(iv) Laterite soils

(v) Arid soils

(vi) Saline soils

(vii) Peaty soils

(viii) Forest soils.

5. Another way of classifying rocks is on the basis of dominant soil-forming factors:

• Zonal Soil – These soils occur in broad geographical areas or zones.
  • They are influenced more by the climate and vegetation of the area rather than the rock-type.
  • They are mature, as a result of stable conditions over a long period of time.
  • For example – red soils, black soils, laterite soils, desert soils etc.
• Azonal Soil – It is that soil which has been developed by the process of deposition by the agents of erosion.
  • It means that it has been made by the fine rocky particles transported from the far-off regions.
  • These are immature soils and lack well-developed soil profiles. This may be due to the non-availability of sufficient time for them to develop fully or due to the location on very steep slopes which prohibits profile development.
  • For Example – alluvial and loess soils.
• Intrazonal Soil – These soils occur within other zonal soils.
  • It is a well-developed soil reflecting the influence of some local factor of relief, parent material, or age rather than of climate and vegetation.
  • For example, calcerous soil (soils which develop from limestone), peat soil.

Soils and Crops of India

1. Alluvial Soils

• Formation: They are mainly derived from the debris brought down from the Himalayas or the silt left out by the retreating sea. Thus they are azonal soils.
• Areas: Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern plains and the river valleys. Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan, they extend into the plains of Gujarat. In the Peninsular region, they are found in deltas of the east coast and in the river valleys.
• Soil texture: The alluvial soils vary in nature from sandy loam to clay. These soils are more loamy and clayey in the lower and middle Ganga plain and the Brahmaputra valley. The sand content decreases from the west to east.
• Soil Colour: The colour of the alluvial soils varies from the light grey to ash grey depending on the depth of the deposition, the texture of the materials, and the time taken for attaining maturity.
• Other Characteristic Features:
  • In the Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different types of alluvial soils have developed, viz. Khadar and Bhangar.

• Khadar: the newer alluvium deposited by floods annually, enriches the soil by depositing fine silts, light colour, found near river beds, porous in nature. Bhangar: older alluvium, clayey, darker, has lime nodules called Kankars, found in doabs (inter-fluve areas).
• Alluvial soils of the northern plains —> transported soils —>, therefore, lack humus —> lack nitrogen [That is why we need to use nitrogenous fertilisers in the northern plains!]. Exception: the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta region is rich in humus.
• These soils lack in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. However, they are generally rich in potash and lime.
• The soil profile has no stratification.
• Alluvial soils are intensively cultivated.
• In certain areas, these soils are covered with unproductive wind-borne soil called Loess.

• Limitations:
  • Allow water to sink into lower strata, and
  • Lack nitrogen (But these soils are capable of fixing nitrogen very rapidly through leguminous crops (peas, beans, cloves etc.)
• Suitable Crops: Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseeds, fruits and vegetables, leguminous crops.

2. Black Soil

• These soils are locally known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’. Internationally, these are known as ‘tropical chernozems’. These soils are famous for the cultivation of cotton.
• Formation: These have mainly formed from the Deccan Trap rocks —> Zonal Soils
• Areas: These are found in the Deccan trap region. Black soil covers most of the Deccan Plateau which include parts of:
  • Maharashtra,
  • Madhya Pradesh,
  • Gujarat,
  • Andhra Pradesh and some parts of
  • Tamil Nadu.
• Soil Texture: Black cotton soil (regur soil) is highly argillaceous i.e. clayey. It is deep and impermeable and thus has high water retention capacity.
• Soil Colour: These soils are black in colour due to the presence of iron, aluminium compounds and humus.
• Other Characteristic Features:
  • These soils are rich in minerals and known for their fertility.
  • The soil depth varies from place to place. It is very thick in lowlands but very thin on highlands. Also, in the upper reaches of the Godavari and the Krishna, and the northwestern part of the Deccan Plateau, the black soil is very deep.
  • These soils swell and become sticky when wet and develop deep wide cracks when dry. This helps in self-aeration, which leads to the absorption of nitrogen from the atmosphere. Thus, there occurs a kind of ‘self ploughing’. This aeration and oxidisation to deep levels contribute to the maintenance of the fertility of these soils. This continued fertility is favourable in the area of low rainfall for cotton cultivation even without irrigation.
  • Due to slow absorption and loss of moisture, the black soil retains the moisture for a very long time, which helps the crops, especially, the rain-fed ones, to sustain even during the dry season.
  • Chemically, the black soils are rich in lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. They also contain potash. But they lack in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter.
• Suitable Crops: These soils are highly productive and well suited to the cultivation of cotton, pulses, millets, linseed, tobacco, sugarcane, vegetables and citrus fruits.

Note: In the southern and eastern parts of the country where rainfall is heavy, black soils often occur in close proximity to red soils. Black soils occupy valleys and low-level areas whereas the red soils occur on higher slopes and hilltops. Mixed black and red soils occur in Coimbatore, Madurai, Tirunelveli (Tamil Nadu) and Bundelkhand region.

3. Red and Yellow Soils

• Locally called ‘Chalka’ in Andhra Pradesh.
• Formation: These are derived from granites, gneisses and other metamorphic rocks —> Zonal Soils. These are formed under well-drained conditions.
• Areas: Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, a long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil. Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Orissa and Chattisgarh and in the southern parts of the middle Ganga plain. They encircle the black cotton soil zone.
• Soil Colour: The soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form. Often, their upper layer is red and the lower layer is yellow.
• Soil Texture: Varies from sand to clay and loam.
• Other Characteristic Features:
  • The fine-grained red and yellow soils are normally fertile, whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry upland areas are poor in fertility.
  • Have a porous and friable structure.
  • They are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus.
  • These soils are airy and need irrigation for cultivation.
  • Intense leaching is a menace in these soil areas.
• Suitable Crops: In places where irrigation facilities are available, the crops cultivated are wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, millets, oilseeds, potato, maize, groundnut and orchards.

4. Laterite Soil

• The word laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘Later’ which means brick. These soils when wet are as soft as butter but become hard and cloddy on drying. Therefore, these are widely cut as bricks for use in house construction.
• Formation: The lateritic soils are particularly found on high flat erosion surfaces in areas of high(>200cm) and seasonal rainfall. The alternating wet and dry seasons lead to the leaching away of the siliceous matter of the rocks leaving behind the compounds of iron and aluminium. These are zonal soils.
• Areas: These soils have mainly developed in the higher areas of the Peninsular plateau. The laterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas of Orissa and Assam.
• Soil Colour: Reddish-brown in colour due to the presence of iron oxide.
• Other characteristic features:
  • With rain, lime and silica are leached away, and soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium compound are left behind(thus the reddish-brown colour). Also, the humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that thrive well in high temperature.
  • These soils represent the end product of decomposition and are generally low in fertility.
  • The pebbly crust is the important feature of laterites which is formed due to alteration of wet and dry periods.
  • These soils are acidic in character due to leaching. Application of manures and fertilisers is required for making these soils fertile for cultivation.
  • These soils are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide and potash are in excess.
• Suitable crops: Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree crops like cashew nut. These soils are also suitable for tea plantations.

We discussed in detail alluvial, black, red and laterite soils. Let’s continue the discussion and move on to the next soil types!

5. Arid Soils

• Formation: These are derived from the disintegration of adjacent rocks and are largely blown from coastal regions and Indus valley.
• Areas: Arid soils are characteristically developed in western Rajasthan, which exhibits characteristic arid topography.
• Soil Colour: Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
• Soil Texture: They are generally sandy to gravelly in texture and have a high percentage of soluble salts.
• Other characteristic features:
  • These are saline in nature. In some areas, the salt content is so high that common salt is obtained by evaporating the saline water.
  • Due to the dry climate, high temperature and accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture and humus.
  • These soils are deficient in nitrogen and humus. The phosphate and iron content is normal. These soils are rich in minerals but the main limitation is the lack of water.
  • The soils exhibit poorly developed horizons.
  • Plants are widely spaced.
  • Chemical weathering is limited.
  • Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers because of the increasing calcium content downwards. The ‘Kankar’ layer formation in the bottom horizons restricts the infiltration of water, and as such when irrigation is made available, the soil moisture is readily available for sustainable plant growth.
• Suitable crops: If irrigated these soils give high agricultural returns. The availability of water from the Indira Gandhi canal has transformed the agricultural landscape of desert soils of western Rajasthan. These soils are mainly devoted to bajra, pulses, guar, fodder and less water requiring crops.

6. Saline and Alkaline Soils

• They are also known as Usara soils. Various local names for saline soils are Reh, Kallar, and Chopan, Rakar, Thur, Karl etc.
• Formation:
  • These soils have developed in areas with dry climatic conditions (in areas having a little more rainfall than the areas of desert soils) accompanied by lack of proper drainage. In this situation, salts of sodium, calcium and magnesium are deposited on the upper layer of the soil by capillary action.
  • In the Rann of Kuchchh, the Southwest Monsoon brings salt particles and deposits there as a crust.
  • These soils are also formed when saline water spreads on the land at the time of high tide in coastal areas. Also, seawater intrusions in the deltas promote the occurrence of saline soils.
  • Salinization also occurs because of over-irrigation (canal irrigation/groundwater use) and in areas of the high water table (as in the coastal areas of Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu). Salinity from irrigation can occur over time wherever irrigation occurs. This is because almost all water (even natural rainfall) contains some dissolved salts. When the plants use the water, the salts are left behind in the soil and eventually begin to accumulate. Also, excessive irrigation with dry climatic conditions promotes capillary action, which results in the deposition of salt on the top layer of the soil (See the following figure).
  • These are thus, intrazonal soils.
• Areas: They occur in arid and semi-arid regions, and in waterlogged and swampy areas. These are more widespread in western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in Sunderban areas of West Bengal.
• Soil Texture: Their texture ranges from sandy to loamy.
• Other characteristic features:
  • Because of capillary action, the salts are sucked up in solution to the surface and form white encrustations on the surface (See the picture below).
    
  • The salt efflorescence of calcium, magnesium and sodium makes these soils infertile.
  • Saline soils contain an excess of neutral soluble salts of chlorides and sulphates whereas sodic or alkali soils contain sodium carbonates/ sodium bicarbonates.
  • They lack in nitrogen and calcium and have low water-bearing capacity.
  • These soils can be reclaimed by improving drainage, by applying gypsum and/or lime, and by cultivating salt-resistant crops like barseem, dhaincha and other leguminous crops.
  • The saline and alkaline soils may occur in any group of soils.
• Crops grown: In coastal areas, coconut trees are found in plenty in these soils. As discussed above, cultivating salt-resistant crops like bar seem, dhaincha and other leguminous crops can help in reclaiming these soils.
• Note: In the areas of intensive cultivation with excessive use of irrigation, especially in areas of green revolution, the fertile alluvial soils are becoming saline. In such areas, especially in Punjab and Haryana, farmers are advised to add gypsum to solve the problem of salinity in the soil.

7. Peaty Soils

• These soils are locally called Kari in Kottayam and Alleppey districts of Kerala.
• Formation: These are marshy soils and are a result of waterlogging and anaerobic conditions (which leads to partial decomposition of organic matter).
• Areas: They are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is a good growth of vegetation. It occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, the southern part of Uttaranchal and the coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
• Soil Colour and Texture: These soils are normally heavy and black in colour
• Other characteristic features:
  • These soils are characterised by a rich humus and organic content.
  • There is a presence of iron and varying amounts of organic matter (10-40%). The organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per cent.
  • These soils are generally acidic in nature. But at many places, they are alkaline also.
• Suitable crops: These are generally submerged during the rainy season and utilised for the cultivation of rice.

8. Forest Soils

• Formation: As the name suggests, forest soils are formed in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available.
• Areas: These are found in the forest areas of Himalayas, Sahyadris, Eastern Ghats and terai region.
• Soil colour and texture: The soils vary in structure and texture depending on the mountain environment where they are formed. They are loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in the upper slopes. Their colour is dark brown.
• Other Characteristics:
  • In the snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, they are acidic with low humus content. This is because humus is rawer at higher levels. Also, these soils are subjected to denudation due to landslides and snowfall.
  • The soils found in the lower valleys are fertile and rich in organic content.
  • Owing to sharp differences of hill slopes and climates, these soils may differ greatly even when in proximity. [Recall here the discussion on the impact of topography on soils!]
  • Also, these soils exist in thin layers because of their development on the mountain slopes.
  • These soils are poor in potash, phosphorus and lime.
  • Soil erosion is a major problem in these areas.
• Crops grown: The slopes are used for horticulture and plantations crops like tea, coffee, spices, apple, peach etc. Rice and wheat are grown in valleys. Potatoes are grown in mostly all areas.

Now that we are done with all the soil types, expand the following image for a quick revision!

Methods of Irrigation

Irrigation

• Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil or agricultural field. It is the replacement or supplementation of rainwater with another source of water. It is used in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall.
• The main idea behind irrigation systems is to assist in the growth of agricultural crops and plants by maintaining with the minimum amount of water required, suppressing weed growth in grain fields, preventing soil consolidation etc.

Well and Tube Well Irrigation

• Wells are mainly found in U.P., Bihar, Tamil Nadu, etc. There are various types of wells – shallow wells, deep wells, tube wells, artesian wells, etc. From the shallow wells water is not always available as the level of water goes down during the dry months. Deep wells are more suitable for the purpose of irrigation as water from them is available throughout the year.
• At places where ground water is available, a tube-well can be installed near the agricultural area. A deep tube well worked by electricity, can irrigate a much larger area (about 400 hectares) than a surface well (half hectares). Tube wells are mostly used in U.P., Haryana, Punjab, Bihar and Gujarat.
• Merits: Well is simplest, cheapest and independent source of irrigation and can be used as and when the necessity arises. Several chemicals such as nitrate, chloride, sulphate, etc. found in well water add to the fertility of soil. More reliable during periods of drought when surface water dries up.
• Demerits: Only limited area can be irrigated. In the event of a drought, the ground water level falls and enough water is not available. Tubewells can draw a lot of groundwater from its neighbouring areas and make the ground dry and unfit for agriculture.

Canal Irrigation

• Canals can be an effective source of irrigation in areas of low level relief, deep fertile soils, perennial source of water and extensive command area. Therefore, the main concentration of canal irrigation is in the northern plain of India, especially the areas comprising Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab.
• The digging of canals in rocky and uneven areas is difficult and uneconomic. Thus, canals are practically absent from the Peninsular plateau area. However, the coastal and the delta regions in South India do have some canals for irrigation.

• Two types: Inundation canals, which are taken out from the rivers without any regulating system like weirs etc. at their head. Such canals provide irrigation mainly in the rainy season when the river is in flood and there is excess water. Perennial Canals are those which are taken off from perennial rivers by constructing a barrage across the river. Most of the canals in India are perennial.
• Merits: Most of the canals provide perennial irrigation and supply water as and when needed. This saves the crops from drought conditions and helps in increasing the farm production.
• Demerits: Many canals overflow during the rainy season and flood the surrounding areas. Canal irrigation is suitable in plain areas only.

Tank Irrigation

• A tank is developed by constructing a small bund of earth or stones built across a stream. The water impounded by the bund is used for irrigation and other purposes. Tank comprises an important source of irrigation in the Karnataka Plateau, MP, Maharashtra, Odisha, Kerala Bundelkhand area of UP, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• Merits: Most of the tanks are natural and do not involve heavy cost for their construction and have longer life span. In many tanks, fishing is also carried on, which supplements both the food resources and income of the farmer.
• Demerits: Many tanks dry up during the dry season and fail to provide irrigation when it is required. Lifting of water from tanks and carrying it to the fields is a strenuous and costly exercise.

Drip Irrigation

• In drip irrigation, water is applied near the plant root through emitters or drippers, on or below the soil surface, at a low rate varying from 2-20 liters per hour. The soil moisture is kept at an optimum level with frequent irrigations.
• Among all irrigation methods, drip irrigation is the most efficient and can be practiced for a large variety of crops, especially in vegetables, orchard crops, flowers and plantation crops.
• Merits: Fertilizer and nutrient loss is minimized due to localized application and reduced leaching. Field leveling is not necessary. Recycled non-potable water can be used. Water application efficiency increases. Soil erosion and weed growth is lessened.
• Demerits: Initial cost can be more, can result in clogging, wastage of water, time and harvest, if not installed properly.

Sprinkler Irrigation

• In this method, water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall on the ground surface somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray is developed by the flow of water under pressure through small orifices or nozzles. The sprinkler irrigation system is a very suitable method for irrigation on uneven lands and on shallow soils.
• Nearly all crops are suitable for sprinkler irrigation systems except crops like paddy, jute, etc. The dry crops, vegetables, flowering crops, orchards, plantation crops like tea, coffee are all suitable and can be irrigated through sprinklers.
• Merits: Suitable to all types of soil except heavy clay. Water saving. Increase in yield. Saves land as no bunds etc. are required.
• Demerits: Higher initial cost. Under high wind conditions and high temperature distribution and application efficiency is poor.

Other Types of Irrigation

• Furrow Irrigation: Furrow irrigation is a type of surface irrigation in which trenches or “furrows” are dug between crop rows in a field. Farmers flow water down the furrows and it seeps vertically and horizontally to refill the soil reservoir. Flow to each furrow is individually controlled.
  
  
  • One of the difficulties of furrow irrigation is ensuring uniform dispersion of water over a given field. Another difficulty with furrow irrigation is the increased potential for water loss due to runoff.
• Surge Irrigation: Surge irrigation is a variant of furrow irrigation where the water supply is pulsed on and off in planned time periods. The wetting and drying cycles reduce infiltration rates resulting in faster advance rates and higher uniformities than continuous flow.
• Ditch Irrigation: It is a rather traditional method, where ditches are dug out and seedlings are planted in rows. The plantings are watered by placing canals or furrows in between the rows of plants. Siphon tubes are used to move the water from the main ditch to the canals.
• Sub Irrigation or Seepage Irrigation: It is a method of irrigation where water is delivered to the plant root zone from below the soil surface and absorbed upwards. The excess may be collected for reuse.
  • Advantages are water and nutrient conservation, and labor-saving.
  • The outfitting cost is relatively high. Potential problems, such as the possibility of increased presence of disease in recycle water.

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With a growing population, rapid urbanization, climate change and environmental pollution, India must move towards a circular economy. An economic approach aimed at eliminating waste and the continual use of resources, the circular economy offers a new paradigm that emphasizes the need to take a comprehensive view of products and processes.

In this article, we shall understand the concept of a Circular economy over a linear one and also look at challenges that lie ahead.

Circular Economy: The Concept

• A circular economy (also referred to as “circularity”)is an economic system that tackles global challenges like climate change, biodiversity loss, waste, and pollution.
• Most linear economy businesses take a natural resource and turn it into a product which is ultimately destined to become waste because of the way it has been designed and made.
• This process is often summarized by “take, make, waste”.
• By contrast, a circular economy includes 3 R’s (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle), Refurbishment, Recover, and Repairing of materials.
• Hence, Circular Economy focuses on increasing productivity in terms of more efficient utilization of resources.

Principles of Circular Economy

The concept is based on three main principles:

#1 Minimization of waste and pollution

The concept suggests the minimization of waste and pollution by reducing damages from economic activities.

#2 Extension of the useful life of products and materials

A circular economy aims to extend the useful life of the products and materials by creating the loops of the materials and products circulating in the economy. The goal is achieved through the active reuse, repair, and remanufacturing of the products and materials utilized in the economy.

#3 Regeneration of natural systems

The regeneration of natural systems is one of the fundamental concepts of a (circular) economy. It enhances natural capital and creates the necessary conditions for the regeneration of natural systems.

Why is the global attention towards this?

• Raw material supply: Circular Economy fulfills the need for raw materials required by industries, especially the manufacturing industries.
• Input costs are minimized: The output produced by industries in a circular economy comes back to the industries in the form of input.
• QCDF improvement: Ultimately, QCDF (Quality, Cost, Delivery, and Flexibility) and sustainability level of industries get improved.

Applications of Circularity

(A) Construction sector

(B) Food and Agriculture

(C) Transportation and Mobility

Benefits offered by Circular Economy

For Economy

• Economic growth, as defined by GDP, would be achieved mainly through a combination of increased revenues from emerging circular activities.
• It lowers the cost of production through the more productive utilization of inputs.  
• These changes in input and output of economic production activities affect economy-wide supply, demand, and prices.
• Its effects ripple through all sectors of the economy adding to overall economic growth.

For Environment

• It solves the problem of disposal of waste by converting waste into raw materials.
• Besides the problem of solid waste management, the circular economy also solves the problem of air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution.

For Individuals

• Lower cost for products and services
• Greater utility and choice
• Reduced negative externalities, e.g. congestion, pollution
• Increased Efficiency of the products

Limitations to the circular economy models

There is some criticism of the idea of the circular economy.

• Linearity: Recovery and recycling of materials that have been dispersed through pollution, waste and end-of-life product disposal require energy and resources, which increase in a nonlinear manner as the percentage of recycled material rises
• Waste management: Impossibility for waste producers to dissociate themselves from their waste and emphasizes the contingent, multiple, and transient value of waste.
• Unavoidability: A key tenet of this principle is to consider waste as avoidable and worthy of interest.
• Utopian concept:  Circular Economy analogy of a circle evokes endless perfection; the analogy of scats evokes disorienting messiness.
• Capability: Proponents of the circular economy have tended to look at the world purely as an engineering system and have overlooked the economic part of the circular economy.
• Invisible economy: Invisible hand of market forces will conspire to create full displacement of virgin material of the same kind.

Need of the hour

• India has a huge potential for reuse and recycling as less than 10-15% of the total waste generated goes into the recycling process.
• Circular Economy will boost the reuse and recycling of materials.
• To start with, sectors like construction, agriculture and vehicle and mobility can be considered as they are going to get the largest growth in coming years and thus India will be able to save more than Rs. 40 lakh Crore by 2030.

India’s roadmap

• ‘Digital India’: This mission contains a significant component of the recycling of electronic wastes. Swachh Bharat Mission is also about making wealth out of wastes.
• Vehicle Scrappage Policy: This most recent reflects the perfect application of circular economy in Automobile sector.

Way forward

• Build circular economy knowledge and capacity: Taking maximum advantage of circular models requires decision-makers throughout the organisation to understand the benefits and take them into account in business decisions.
• Innovate to create new products and business models and demonstrate their success: Businesses can foster innovation to address challenges, such as transition costs, more rapidly by collaborating with research institutions and by making information open source.
• Collaborate with other businesses, policymakers, and the informal economy: Participation in pre-competitive collaboration in cross-industry and cross-value-chain networks can enable businesses to drive change that they cannot create on their own.
• Invest in circular economy opportunities: While sizing and prioritizing the value of investment related to the circular economy opportunities outlined in this report requires detailed analysis, the circular economy offers attractive opportunities for both businesses and financial institutions.

Conclusion

• Resources in the world are finite. The circular economy will help the inefficient utilization of resources.
• Political will is the key for implementation of Circular Economy.
• Countries including India need to think about what they are taking from the environment and what they are contributing to it.
• They also need to ensure that the material gets recycled or reused before it turns into waste.