“Judiciary-Executive Clash Over Supremacy from 1947 Till Today“

In the Second Episode of The Overlooked Series, Sajal sir and Sudhanshu sir will look into the tussle between Executive and Judiciary since independence. They will discuss about the origin of the dispute and look into specific cases such as “Sankari Prasad” case, “Patanjali Sastry” case, “A N Ray” case, “H R Khanna” case, etc.

Please fill this form if you want to connect with Sajal sir or Sudhanshu sir:–

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The Overlooked Ep. 1 || Why one country’s villain is another country’s hero :- https://youtu.be/ZWApdNvMIT8

Maintaining consistency is one of the biggest issues faced by IAS Aspirants. Streak’s initiative is to help Aspirants in their day-to-day preparation. You can follow the monthly, weekly, and daily timetables and continue this streak until you find yourself on the final list.

Please register for Streak Initiative (free) through this link:- https://www.civilsdaily.com/course/streak-daily-initiative/

You will get following study material:-

1. Questions (PDF).
2. RSTV/Yojana monthly notes (PDF).
3. Burning issue (PDF).
4. Subject specific (PDF).
5. Mentor’s phone call for support & encouragement.

_____________________________________________

Daily Study Plan with Answer Writing Challenge || STREAK FREE INITIATIVE FOR UPSC IAS – by Ravi Ranjan

UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Based Most Probable Questions on Polity – by Sukanya Rana

Q1) Consider the following statements with respective to Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Rules 2020

1. Under the Rules, an application to declare gender is to be made to the District Magistrate. 
2. Under the rules transgender persons needs to go through a medical examination for declaring their desired sex. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

a. 1 only 

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

Q2) Consider the following statements with respective to Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council 

1. The members of the council are elected and have executive powers over the allotment, use and occupation of land vested in them by the Centre. 
2. The AHDCs have the powers to collect some local taxes, such as parking fees, taxes on shops etc. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

a. 1 only 

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

Q3) Consider the following statements 

1. Appointments and promotions of district judges in any State shall be made by the Governor of the State in consultation with the High Court.
2. Parliament is empowered to make laws for the creation of one or more All-India Services, including an All India Judicial Service (AIJS). 
3. All India Judicial Service (AIJS) shall not include any post inferior to that of a district judge. 

Which of the statements given above are correct? 

a. 1 and 2 only 

b. 1 and 3 only 

c. 2 and 3 only 

d. 1, 2 and 3

Q4) In India, the Ministries/Departments of the Government are created by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister under which of the following? 

a. Article 75 of Indian Constitution 

b. The Representation of Peoples Act, 1951 

c. Government of India (Allocation of Business) Rules, 1961 

d. Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in the Lok Sabha

Q5) Consider the following statements with respective to Tele-Law programme 

1. It was launched by the Ministry of Law and Justice in collaboration with the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY). 
2. It aims to address cases at the pre– litigation stage and free for those who are eligible for free legal Aid. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

a. 1 only 

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Most Probable Questions on Polity – by Santosh Gupta

Q1) Consider the following statements 

1. The conditions of service and tenure of office of the election commissioners and the regional commissioners shall be determined by the president. 
2. They hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the age of 60 years, whichever is earlier. 
3. The Constitution has debarred the retiring election commissioners from any further appointment by the government.

 Which of the statements given above is/are incorrect?

a. 1 and 2 

b. 2 and 3

c. 1 and 3 

d. All of them 

Q2) Consider the following statements 

1. The President can remove the chairman or any other member of UPSC on grounds of misbehavior after referring the matter to the Supreme Court. 
2. The term misbehavior, however, has not been defined in the Constitution and has been left to the discretion of the President. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. 1 only

b. 2 only

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. None of them

Q3) Consider the following statements about Finance Commission 

1. It is a permanent quasi judicial body constituted by the president of India
2. The members of the Finance Commission are not eligible for reappointment. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. 1 only

b. 2 only

c. Both  1 AND 2 

d. None of them

Q4)  Which of the following statements regarding CAG of India is/are correct? 

1. The CAG is appointed by the president of India by a warrant under his hand and seal. 
2. He holds office for a period of six years or upto the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. 
3. He holds office during the pleasure of the president as he is appointed by him. 

Select the correct answer using the codes given below

a. 1 and 2 only

b. 2 AND 3 only

c. 1 and 3 only

d. All of them

Q5) Consider the following statements 

1. The Attorney General (AG) is appointed by the president and he must be a person who is qualified to be appointed a judge of the Supreme Court. 
2. The term of office of the AG is 5 years. 
3. He holds office during the pleasure of the president. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. 1 and 2 only

b. 2 and 3 only

c. 1 and 3 only

d. All of them

Daily Dose: Complete Snapshots of Everyday News – by Shweta Mishra

11th Sept 2021

UPSC 2022 countdown has begun! Get your personal guidance plan now! (Click here)

1. Important Temples/Monasteries/Stupa/Caves- Click2view

2. Important Historical Sculptures- Click2view

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4. Subject specific (PDF).
5. Mentor’s phone call for support & encouragement.

_____________________________________________

UPSC Daily Study Plan For 2021 and 2022 || STREAK – by Ravi Ranjan

CSAT for UPSC Prelims || Free CSAT Sessions by Civilsdaily – by Ravi Ranjan

UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Based Most Probable Questions on Polity – by Sukanya Rana

Q1) Consider the following statements with respect to Model Panchayat Citizens Charter 

1. Panchayats are responsible for delivery of basic services as enshrined under article 243G of the Constitution of India. 
2. The Charter would ensure transparent and effective delivery of public services and accountable Local Self Governments. 
3. The charter was prepared by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj in collaboration with National Institute of Rural Development & Panchayati Raj (NIRDPR). 

Which of the statements given above are correct? 

a. 1 and 2 only 

b. 1 and 3 only 

c. 2 and 3 only 

d. 1, 2 and 3

Q2) With respect to Election Commissioners, consider the following statements: 

1. The Chief Election Commissioner and the Election Commissioners have equal powers and receive equal salary, which are similar to those of a judge of the Supreme Court. 
2. In case of difference of opinion amongst the Chief election commissioner and the other election commissioners, the matter is decided by the Commission by majority. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

a. 1 only 

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

Q3) Consider the following statements with respect to PENCIL Portal 

1. It is an electronic platform developed for the enforcement of legislative provisions of National Child Labour Policy (NCLP).
2. It works under the control of the Ministry of Labour & Employment. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

a. 1 only 

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

Q4) Consider the following statements with respective to Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) 

1. Under UAPA, the period of probe and detention of the accused can be extended up to 180 days. 
2. Investigation of cases under UAPA, may be conducted by officers of the rank of Deputy Superintendent or Assistant Commissioner of Police or above. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

a. 1 only 

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

Q5) Consider the following statements with respective to Inland Vessels Bill, 2021 

1. It will approve separate rules framed by the States for registration of inland vessels. 
2. It will provide for a central database for recording the details of vessel, vessel registration, crew on an electronic portal. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are incorrect? 

a. 1 only 

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Most Probable Questions on Environment and Ecology – by Santosh Gupta

Q1) Consider the following statements regarding Project MIKE (Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants) : 

1. It has been established by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). 
2. It is a site-based system designed to monitor trends in the illegal killing of elephants to help range States make appropriate management and enforcement decisions. 
3. The largest number of MIKE-sites are in India. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. 1 and 2

b. 2 and 3

c.  1 and 3

d. all of them 

Q2) Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding Biosphere Reserves (BRs)? 

1. BRs are admitted into the Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme by the United Nations Environment Programme. 
2. BRs under MAB programme remain under the sovereign jurisdiction of the State where they are situated. 
3. There are 28 Biosphere reserves in India under MAB programme. 

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

a. 1 and 2 only

b. 2 only

c. 1 and 3 only

d. All of them

Q3) Consider the following statements with respect to SAVE programme: 

1. The objective of the programme is to save Asian vultures from extinction. 
2. It is an initiative of International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. 1 only

b. 2 only

c. 1 and 2 only

d. None of them

Q4) Consider the following statements regarding Global Footprint Network: 

1. It was established by the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002. 
2. It is responsible for hosting and calculating Earth Overshoot Day. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. 1 only

b. 2 only

c. Both 1 and 2

d. None of them

Q5) Consider the following statements regarding ‘Biosafety Clearing House’: 

1. It has been established to facilitate the exchange of information on Living Modified Organisms to protect biological diversity. 
2. It is a mechanism set up by the  Nagoya Protocol. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. 1 only

b. 2 only

c. Both 1 and 2

d. None of them

Daily Dose: Complete Snapshots of Everyday News – by Shweta Mishra

10th Sept 2021

 

UPSC 2022 countdown has begun! Get your personal guidance plan now! (Click here)

 

Astamahasthanas are eight great holy places associated with the life of Buddha.  These include four pilgrimage sites related to the life of Gautama Buddha viz. Lumbini, Bodhgaya, Sarnath and Kushinagara and four other sites viz. Sravasti, Sankasya, Rajgir and Vaishali.

Lumbini

Lumbini is currently located in the Kapilavastu district of Nepal. It is the birthplace of Buddha. At the time of the birth of Buddha, Lumbini was a part of Shakya Janapada, which was a republic.

Bodhgaya

It is located in Bihar on the bank of river Neranjana {this river was known as Uruwela at that time}. It is known as a place of enlightenment of Buddha.

Sarnath

Sarnath {also known as Mrigadava, Migadaya, Rishipattana, Isipatana} is the deer park where Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon or Dhammachakraparivartan Sutra. At the time of Buddha, it was a part of Kashi Janapada.

Kushinagar

Kushinara or Kushinagara is located in the Kushinagar district of Uttar Pradesh. It is the site of Buddha’s death and mahaparinirvana. At the time of Buddha’s death, it was the capital of Malla janapada.

Sravasti

Sravasti was located in Uttar Pradesh around the area of Balrampur in modern Uttar Pradesh. It is closely associated with the life of Buddha because Buddha had spent 24 Chaturmasas {implies 24 years because one year as only one Chaturmasa between Ashadha to Kartika}. Thus, we can say that most of the monastic life of Buddha was spent in Shravasti. In Buddha’s times, Shravasti was the capital of Kosala Kingdom. Shravasti is also the birthplace of Jaina Tirthankar Sambhavanath, and thus is important for Jains also.

Sankasya

Its current location is the Farrukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh. It has some faiths of Buddhism that Buddha after his death descended from heaven here.

Rajgir

Rajgir was the early capital of Magadh Janapada, which was ruled by Bimbisara during Buddha’s time. After the great departure (Mahabhinishkramana), Buddha had first gone to Rajgir. He started begging alms over there and living a life of an ascetic. King Bimbisara had offered Buddha his throne which he turned down.

Vaishali

At the time of Buddha, Vaishali was in Vajji Janapada.  After leaving Kapilavastu for renunciation, he came to Vaishali first and had his spiritual training from Allara and Udaka.

Other places of importance in Buddhism

Amaravati

Amaravati in Andhrapradesh’s Guntur district is also known as Dhanyakataka or Dharanikota and was the site of a great Buddhist Stupa built in pre-Mauryan times, ruled by Satavahana kings.

Nagarjunkonda

Nagarjunkonda is near Nagarjun Sagar in Andhra Pradesh. Once, it was home to more than 30 Buddhist Viharas (Buddhist universities and monasteries), attracting students from as far as China, Gandhara, Bengal, and Sri Lanka. Nagarjunkonda was one the largest and most important Buddhist centers in South India from the second century BC until the third century AD. It was named after Nagarjuna, a renowned Buddhist scholar, and philosopher, who had migrated here from Amaravati to propagate and spread the Buddha’s message of universal peach and brotherhood. Remains were discovered in 1926 by archaeologist AR Saraswati 1926.

Ajanta Caves

Ajanta Caves are 31 rock-cut caves from the 2nd to 8th century AD, located in Aurangabad. The first caves called Chaityas were created during Satavahana Dynasty. Cave No. 1 has the painting of Padmapani and Vajrapani. Painted narratives of the Jataka tales are depicted on the walls.

Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat is located in Cambodia. The temple complex was built by Suryavarman II and it was first devoted to Vishnu and later to Buddhists.

Bodh Gaya

Bodh Gaya was known as Bodhimanda, Uruvela, Sambodhi, Vajrasana, and Mahabodhi till the 18th century when Bodh Gaya’s name became popular. It has the Mahabodhi temple and Bodhi tree. It became Unesco’s world heritage site in 2002.

Bodhi Tree

It’s a Pipal Tree (Ficus Religiosa) and is known as Bo in Sri Lanka. Located in Bodh Gaya. Under this tree Gautama attained enlightenment. The current tree is a descendent of the original tree. There are other Bodhi trees as well viz. Anandabodhi tree in Sravasti and the Bodhi tree (Bo) or also known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi planted in 288 BC in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka and both of them have been propagated from the original tree. It is also known as the oldest living Human Planted tree in the world with known planting date.

Borobudur

Borobudur is located in Indonesia and comprises six square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. It’s a world Heritage site. There are 3 Buddhist temples which are known as Borobudur Temple Compounds.

Bamyan Caves

They are located in Afghanistan and have statues represented the classic blended style of Gandhara art of the 6th century, They were the largest examples of standing Buddha carvings in the world before they were blown by dynamite by the Taliban in 2001.

Ellora Caves

Ellora Caves represent Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu Rock-cut temples built by Rastrakuta Kings. The earliest Buddhist cave is Cave 6; most caves of Buddhism are Viharas. Cave number 10 is a Chaitya hall also known as Chandrashala or Vishwakarma Cave and also known as carpenter’s cave. At the heart of this cave is a 15 ft statue of Buddha seated in a preaching pose.

Pushpagiri University

Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, and Udayagiri are part of the Puspagiri University which flourished till the 11th century in Odisha. They lie atop the Langudi hills in Jajpur and Cuttak of Orissa.

Vikramshila, Odantapuri and Somapapuri

Vikramshila. Odantapuri & Somapapuri were the Buddhist Viharas founded by Palas.

---

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_____________________________________________

UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Based Most Probable Questions on Polity – by Sukanya Rana

Q1) Consider the following statements with respect to Consolidated Sinking Fund? 

1. The fund should be maintained outside the consolidated fund of the States and the public account. 

2. It should not be used for any other purpose, except for redemption of loans. 

3. It is administered by the Department of economic affairs and respective State treasuries. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

a. 1 only 

b. 1 & 2 only 

c. 1 & 3 only 

d. 2 & 3 only

Q2) Consider the following statements with respect to Appointment of Chief Minister 

1. The Constitution does not require that a person must prove his majority in the legislative assembly before he is appointed as the Chief Minister. 

2. The term of the Chief Minister is not fixed and he holds office during the pleasure of the governor. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

a. 1 only 

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

Q3) Identify from the following the languages that were initially included in the Constitution.

1. Gujarati

2. Kashmiri

3. Konkani

4. Malayalam

5. Manipuri

6. Marathi

The correct option is:

a. 1, 3, 4 and 5 only

b. 1, 2, 4 and 6 only

c. 2, 3, 5 and 6 only

d. All

Q4) Consider the following statements with respective to Article 311 

1. It puts certain restrictions on the absolute power of the President or Governor for dismissal, removal or reduction in rank of an officer. 

2. The protective safeguards given under Article 311 are applicable to both civil servants and defence personnel. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

a. 1 only

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

Q5) Consider the following statements with respective to Creation of New District 

1. The power to create new districts or alter or abolish existing districts rests only with the State governments. 

2. A state can create a district only by passing a law in the state assembly. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are incorrect? 

a. 1 only 

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

Daily Dose: Complete Snapshots of Everyday News – by Shweta Mishra

09th Sept 2021

 

UPSC 2022 countdown has begun! Get your personal guidance plan now! (Click here)

 

Cyclones

• Cyclones are rapid inward air circulation around a low-pressure area. The air circulates in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern hemisphere.
• Cyclones are usually accompanied by violent storms and bad weather.
• The word Cyclone is derived from the Greek word Cyclos meaning the coils of a snake. It was coined by Henry Peddington because the tropical storms in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea appear like coiled serpents of the sea.

Types of Cyclone

There are various types of cyclones depending on the type of prevailing low-pressure system.

1. Tropical cyclone
2. Extra-tropical cyclone
3. Tornadoes

How are Cyclones addressed in Different Locations?

Cyclones are addressed by different names in different locations.

1. Hurricanes – In the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific.
2. Typhoons – In Southeast Asia
3. Cyclone – In the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific around Australia.

What are tropical Cyclones?

• A Tropical cyclone is an intense circular storm that originates over warm tropical oceans and is characterized by low atmospheric pressure, high winds, and heavy rain.
• Cyclones are formed over slightly warm ocean waters. The temperature of the top layer of the sea, up to a depth of about 60 meters, need to be at least 28°C to support the formation of a cyclone.
• This explains why the April-May and October-December periods are conducive for cyclones.
• Then, the low level of air above the waters needs to have an ‘anticlockwise’ rotation (in the northern hemisphere; clockwise in the southern hemisphere).
• During these periods, there is an ITCZ in the Bay of Bengal whose southern boundary experiences winds from west to east, while the northern boundary has winds flowing east to west.
• Once formed, cyclones in this area usually move northwest. As it travels over the sea, the cyclone gathers more moist air from the warm sea which adds to its heft.

Formation of a Cyclone

(The above figure shows how cyclones form. The green arrows show where warm air is rising. The red arrows indicate where cool air is sinking)

Requirements for a Cyclone to form

There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis:

• Sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures.
• Atmospheric instability.
• High humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere.
• Enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure center.
• A preexisting low-level focus or disturbance.
• Low vertical wind shear.

Origin

• The formation and initial development of a cyclonic storm depends upon the transfer of water vapour and heat from the warm ocean to the overlying air, primarily by evaporation from the sea surface.
• It encourages formation of massive vertical cumulus clouds due to convection with condensation of rising air above the ocean surface.
• Under favorable conditions, multiple thunderstorms originate over the oceans. These thunderstorms merge and create an intense low pressure system (wind is warm and lighter).

Early Stage 

• In the thunderstorm, air is uplifted as it is warm and light. At certain height, due to lapse rate and adiabatic lapse rate, the temperature of air falls and moisture in the air undergoes condensation.
• Condensation releases latent heat of condensation making the air more warmer. It becomes much lighter and is further uplifted.
• The space is filled by fresh moisture laden air. Condensation occurs in this air and the cycle is repeated as long as the moisture is supplied.
• Due to excess moisture over oceans, the thunderstorm intensifies and sucks in air at much faster rate. The air from surroundings rushes in and undergoes deflection due to Coriolis force creating a cyclonic vortex (spiraling air column. Similar to tornado).
• Due to centripetal acceleration (centripetal force pulling towards the center is countered by an opposing force called centrifugal force), the air in the vortex is forced to form a region of calmness called an eye at the center of the cyclone. The inner surface of the vortex forms the eye wall, the most violent region of the cyclone.
• All the wind that is carried upwards loses its moisture and becomes cold and dense. It descends to the surface through the cylindrical eye region and at the edges of the cyclone.
• Continuous supply of moisture from the sea is the major driving force behind every cyclone. On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off and the storm dissipates.
• If ocean can supply more moisture, the storm will reach a mature stage.

Mature Stage

• At this stage, the spiraling winds create multiple convective cells with successive calm and violent regions.
• The regions with cumulonimbus cloud (rising limbs of convective cell) formation are called rain bands below which intense rainfall occurs.
• The ascending air will lose moisture at some point and descends (subsides) back to surface through the calm regions (descending limbs of convection cell – subsiding air) that exist between two rain bands.
• Cloud formation is dense at the center. The cloud size decreases from center to periphery.
• Rain bands are mostly made up of cumulonimbus clouds. The ones at the periphery are made up of nimbostratus and cumulus clouds.
• The dense overcast at the upper levels of troposphere is due to cirrus clouds which are mostly made up of hexagonal ice crystals.
• The dry air flowing along the central dense overcast descends at the periphery and the eye region.

Structure of a tropical cyclone

Eye

• The “eye” is a roughly circular area of comparatively light winds and fair weather found at the center of a severe tropical cyclone.
• There is little or no precipitation and sometimes blue sky or stars can be seen.
• The eye is the region of lowest surface pressure and warmest temperatures aloft (in the upper levels) – the eye temperature may be 10°C warmer or more at an altitude of 12 km than the surrounding environment, but only 0-2°C warmer at the surface in the tropical cyclone.
• Eyes range in size from 8 km to over 200 km across, but most are approximately 30-60 km in diameter.

Eye wall

• The eye is surrounded by the “eye wall”, the roughly circular ring of deep convection, which is the area of highest surface winds in the tropical cyclone. Eye Wall region also sees the maximum sustained winds i.e. fastest winds in a cyclone occur along the eye wall region.
• The eye is composed of air that is slowly sinking and the eye wall has a net upward flow as a result of many moderate – occasionally strong – updrafts and downdrafts [Explained in ‘Thunderstorms’].
• The eye’s warm temperatures are due to compressional warming (adiabatic) of the subsiding air.
• Most soundings taken within the eye show a low-level layer, which is relatively moist, with an inversion above – suggesting that the sinking in the eye typically does not reach the ocean surface, but instead only gets to around 1-3 km of the surface.

Spiral bands

• Another feature of tropical cyclones that probably plays a role in forming and maintaining the eye is the eye wall convection.
• Convection in tropical cyclones is organized into long, narrow rain bands which are oriented in the same direction as the horizontal wind.
• Because these bands seem to spiral into the center of a tropical cyclone, they are called “spiral bands”.
• Along these bands, low-level convergence is a maximum, and therefore, upper-level divergence is most pronounced above.
• A direct circulation develops in which warm, moist air converges at the surface, ascends through these bands, diverges aloft, and descends on both sides of the bands.
• Subsidence is distributed over a wide area on the outside of the rain band but is concentrated in the small inside area.
• As the air subsides, adiabatic warming takes place, and the air dries.
• Because subsidence is concentrated on the inside of the band, the adiabatic warming is stronger inward from the band causing a sharp contrast in pressure falls across the band since warm air is lighter than cold air.
• Because of the pressure falls on the inside, the tangential winds around the tropical cyclone increase due to increased pressure gradient. Eventually, the band moves toward the center and encircles it and the eye and eye wall form.
• Thus, the cloud-free eye may be due to a combination of dynamically forced centrifuging of mass out of the eye into the eye wall and to a forced descent caused by the moist convection of the eye wall.

Vertical Structure of a Tropical Cyclone

There are three divisions in the vertical structure of tropical cyclones.

• The lowest layer, extending up to 3 km and known as the inflow layer, is responsible for driving the storm.
• The middle layer, extending from 3 km to 7 km, is where the main cyclonic storm takes place.
• The outflow layer lies above 7 km. The maximum outflow is found at 12 km and above. The movement of air is anticyclonic in nature.

Categories of Tropical Cyclones

Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones

The main features of tropical cyclones are as follows.

Size and Shape

• Tropical cyclones have symmetrical elliptical shapes (2:3 ratio of length and breadth) with steep pressure gradients. They have a compact size—80 km near center, which may develop up to 300 km to 1500 km.

Wind Velocity and Strength

• Wind velocity, in a tropical cyclone, is more in poleward margins than at center and is more over oceans than over landmasses, which are scattered with physical barriers. The wind velocity may range from nil to 1200 km per hour.

Path of Tropical Cyclones

• These cyclones start with a westward movement, but turn northwards around 20° latitude. They turn further north-eastwards around 25° latitude, and then eastwards around 30° latitude. They then lose energy and subside.
• Tropical cyclones follow a parabolic path, their axis being parallel to the isobars.
• Coriolis force or earth’s rotation, easterly and westerly winds influence the path of a tropical cyclone.
• Tropical cyclones die at 30° latitude because of cool ocean waters and increasing wind shear due to westerlies.

Tides

• The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of the sun and the moon, is called a tide.
• Movement of water caused by meteorological effects (winds and atmospheric pressure changes) are called surges (storm surge during cyclones).
• The study of tides is very complex, spatially and temporally, as it has great variations in frequency, magnitude and height.
• The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s gravitational pull, are the major causes for the occurrence of tides.
• Another factor is centrifugal force which acts opposite to gravitational pull of earth.
• Tides occur due to a balance between all these forces.

Factors Controlling the Nature and Magnitude of Tides

• The movement of the moon in relation to the earth.
• Changes in position of the sun and moon in relation to the earth.
• Uneven distribution of water over the globe.
• Irregularities in the configuration of the oceans.
• On the surface of the earth, the horizontal tide generating forces are more important than the vertical forces in generating the tidal bulges.
• The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves, have greater height. When tidal bulges hit the mid-oceanic islands they become low.
• The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can also magnify the intensity of tides.
• Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal magnitudes. When the tide is channeled between islands or into bays and estuaries they are called tidal currents (tidal bore is one such tidal current).

Types of Tides

• Tides vary in their frequency, direction and movement from place to place and also from time to time.
• Tides may be grouped into various types based on their frequency of occurrence in one day or 24 hours or based on their height.

Tides based on Frequency

Semi-diurnal tide

• The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each day [Actually it varies between 3 tides to 4 tides –– 3 tides in rare cases but 4 is normal]. The successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.

Although tides occur twice a day, their interval is not exactly 12 hours. Instead, they occur at regular intervals of 12 hours and 25 minutes.

• This is because the moon revolves around the earth from west to east, and each day it moves a bit to the east if observed from the same place on earth at the same time on two consecutive days.
• This time lag explains the tide interval of 12 hours and- 25 minutes, as tides occur twice a day.
• A place in England—Southampton—experiences tides 6-8 times a day [2 high tides from North Sea + 2 high tides from English Channel + 2 neap tides from North Sea + 2 neap tides from English Channel]. This happens because the North Sea and the English Channel push the water at different intervals.

Diurnal tide

• There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The successive high and low tides are approximately of the same height.

Mixed tide

• Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides. These tides generally occur along the west coast of North America and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean.

Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth Positions

• The height of rising water (high tide) varies appreciably depending upon the position of sun and moon with respect to the earth. Spring tides and neap tides come under this category.

Spring tides

• The position of both the sun and the moon in relation to the earth has direct bearing on tide height.
• When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide will be higher.
• These are called spring tides and they occur twice a month, one on full moon period and another during new moon period.

Neap tides

• Normally, there is a seven day interval between the spring tides and neap tides.
• At this time the sun and moon are at right angles to each other and the forces of the sun and moon tend to counteract one another.
• The Moon’s attraction, though more than twice as strong as the sun’s, is diminished by the counteracting force of the sun’s gravitational pull.
• Like spring tides, these tides also occur twice a month.

The magnitude of tides based on Perigee and apogee of moon

• Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high and low tides occur. During this time the tidal range is greater than normal.
• Two weeks later, when the moon is farthest from earth (apogee), the moon’s gravitational force is limited and the tidal ranges are less than their average heights.

The magnitude of tides based on Perigee and Apogee of earth

• When the earth is closest to the sun (perihelion), around 3rd January each year, tidal ranges are also much greater, with unusually high and unusually low tides.
• When the earth is farthest from the sun (aphelion), around 4th July each year, tidal ranges are much less than average.

Ebb and Flood

• The time between the high tide and low tide, when the water level is falling, is called the ebb.
• The time between the low tide and high tide, when the tide is rising, is called the flow or flood.

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“Where do the evils like corruption arise from? It comes from the never-ending greed. The fight for corruption-free ethical society will have to be fought against this greed and replace it with ‘what can I give’ spirit.”

—Dr APJ Abdul Kalam

Introduction

• Ethics is a set of standards that helps guide behavior, choices and actions of individuals. It is multidimensional as it is governed by the value system of the society including the concept of rights, obligations, fairness, virtues, etc.
• Ethics and probity form the cornerstone of the public administration system.
• In today’s world, when the governments are playing an active role in the socioeconomic development of the country, the role of the government functionaries becomes more challenging as they are both the facilitators and enforcers of the law and rules.
• Responsibility and accountability are integral to ethics. The character of laws and rules through which accountability is enforced is based on the moral ideas of society.

What are Ethics?

• The word ‘ethics’ is from the original Greek term ‘ethikos’, meaning ‘arising from habit’.
• Undoubtedly, culture, values, character, the sense of right and wrong are quintessential determinants of ethics.
• Ethics in public is not limited to the expression of high moral values alone.
• It also refers to the framework for holding the public functionaries legally accountable for their acts of omission and commission.

The conception of Ethics in India

The Committee on Prevention of Corruption (1964) also known as ‘Santhanam Committee had observed:

• The public confidence and respect which the functionaries enjoy is largely the result of collective efforts.
• Adherence to key principles of Integrity, Honesty, and Objectivity promotes trust and confidence among the stakeholders and enhances credibility.
• The conduct of Government functionaries should be beyond reproach in all circumstances.
• Any deficiency in their professional or personal conduct places their personal integrity and quality of work in unfavorable light and raises doubts about their actions.

Ethics in Governance

Ethics is concerned with human character and conduct. It condemns all types of falsehood. The Second Administrative Reforms Commission in its Second Report on Ethics suggested the principles for ethics in the governance and stated that:

• Values serve as guiding stars showing the path to all the members of the society and everyone is expected to respect and follow them. As they are not codified and are subject to interpretation, situations of conflict do arise.

Any framework of ethical behaviour must include the following elements:

1. Codifying ethical norms and practices
2. Disclosing personal interest to avoid conflict between public interest and personal gain
3. Creating a mechanism for enforcing the relevant codes
4. Providing norms for qualifying and disqualifying a public functionary from office

Civilizational traits: At the same time, a sense of right and wrong is deeply ingrained in culture and civilization. The ethos of the society is designed by the behavior patterns of its citizens building an environment of trust and confidence.

Integrity: It has to be seen as a holistic concept covering various aspects of conduct and not limited to financial honesty. Public office should be treated as a trust which imposes a lot of responsibility on the holders of the office and makes them accountable to society.

Righteousness: The power of righteousness and the capability to uphold the truth have to come from within. Honesty can’t simply be a mandate emanating out of a government order.

Public interest: Integrity requires the public functionaries to exercise due Diligence while discharging their duties responsibly, make decisions with the public interest in mind and be honest in carrying out their work and handling government resources.

Code of Conduct

• The Code of Conduct for the Civil Servants has evolved over time.
• A compendium of instructions containing ‘dos and don’ts’ for Civil Servants was issued in the 1930s and collectively called ‘Conduct Rules’.
• In pursuance of the recommendations of the Santhanam Committee, the Conduct rules were revised and enlarged resulting in CCS Conduct Rules 1964 being followed today.
• These rules are a dynamic set of instructions for the Government servants as based on the introduction of new dimensions in the legal framework.
• The Conduct Rules prescribe some general behavioral norms like ‘maintaining the integrity and absolute devotion to duty’ and not indulging in ‘conduct unbecoming of a government servant’.

Framework

Probity in governance is absolutely essential for an efficient and effective system of governance. Ethics and probity cannot be seen in isolation. Both are intertwined and have to be seen as complementary to each other. The Consultation Paper on ‘Probity in Governance’ issued in 2001 by the National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution highlighted many legislative and institutional issues including:

• Need for enforcing section 5 of the Benami Transactions (Prohibition) Act,
• The necessity for a law providing for the confiscation of illegally acquired assets of public servants,
• Enactment of a Public Interest Disclosure Act,
• Enactment of a Freedom of information Act,
• The necessity for enacting a Lok Pal Bill in addition to
• The Central Vigilance Commission Act and
• Strengthening of the Criminal Judicial System.

Probity in governance is expected to ensure accountability, transparency, and integrity in public life. In India, we have an extensive legislative and institutional framework to address the issues relating to probity as detailed below:

Apart from the existing framework accountability and transparency can be enhanced by-

• Minimizing the discretions in various functions.
• More extensive use of Information technology in all fields of governance.
• Making Citizens’ charter more elaborate with clear time lines for delivery of services and related activities as well as identifying the officer responsible for that delivery; further a monthly report on compliance to Citizens’ charter can be placed on the website of the organization.

Conclusion

The Government functionaries are part of the society and to that extent are influenced by societal norms. At the same time being part of the governance structure, they have to be more responsible and seen to be above board all the time. There is a strong legal and institutional framework for ensuring probity. It needs to be strengthened and made more effective by nudging people to follow the laws of the land and making punishments for the delinquents very severe.

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UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Based Most Probable Questions on Polity – by Sukanya Rana

Q1) Consider the following statements with respect to E-Courts Project 

1. It is a pan-India Project, monitored and funded by the Department of Justice. 
2. It is one of the National e-Governance projects being implemented in District and Subordinate Courts of the Country. 
3. The project has been implemented by the eCommittee, Supreme Court of India along with Department of Justice and National Information Centre. 

Which of the statements given above are correct? 

a. 1 and 2 only 

b. 1 and 3 only 

c. 2 and 3 only 

d. 1, 2 and 3

Q2) Consider the following statements with respect to Star Campaigners 

1. The expenditure incurred on campaigning by „stars‟ is exempt from being added to the election expenditure of a candidate. 

2. In India there is no law governing who can or cannot be made a star campaigner. 

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are incorrect?

a. 1 only 

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

Q3) Which of the following statements are incorrect with respect to Provisions under Tribunal Reforms Ordinance 2021 

1. Under this Chairperson and Members of the Tribunals will be appointed by the central government on the recommendation of a Search-cum Selection Committee. 

2. It amended the Cinematograph Act, 1952 by which abolished the Film Certification Appellate Tribunal (FCAT). 

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: 

a. 1 only

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

Q4) Consider the following statements with respect to National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) 

1. It is a constitutional body established under Article 338 of Indian Constitution. 

2. The members of the commission are appointed by the President by warrant under his/her hand and seal. 

3. The conditions of service and tenure of office of members of NCSC are determined by the President. 

Which of the statements given above are correct? 

a. 1 and 2 only 

b. 1 and 3 only 

c. 2 and 3 only 

d. 1, 2 and 3

Q5) Which of the following statements are correct with respect to Right to Freedom of Movement

1. It is protected against only state action and not private individuals. 

2. It is guaranteed under Article 19 of the Indian Constitution. 

Select the correct answer using the codes given below: 

a. 1 only 

b. 2 only 

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. Neither 1 nor 2

Daily Dose: Complete Snapshots of Everyday News – by Shweta Mishra

08th Sept 2021

 

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(1) The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate

Distribution	Climate	Natural Vegetation	Economy
It is found between 5º and 10º north and south of the equator. It is dominantly found in the lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia, and the East Indies.	There is great uniformity of temperature throughout the year. The mean monthly temperatures are always around 24 to 27ºC, with very little variation. There is no winter. The diurnal and annual range of temperature is small. Precipitation is heavy between 6o inches and 10 inches, and well distributed throughout the year. The double rainfall peaks, coinciding with the equinoxes are a characteristics feature of it.	It supports a luxuriant type of vegetation – the tropical rain forest. Amazon tropical rain forest is known as Selvas. It comprises a multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical hardwood, e.g. mahogany, ebony, greenheart, cabinet wood. And dyewoods. Lianas, epiphytic and parasitic plants are also found. Trees of single species are very scarce in such vegetation.	The equatorial regions are generally sparsely populated. In the forests, most primitive people live as hunters and collectors and the more advanced ones practice shifting cultivation. Some plantation crops are also practiced like natural rubber, cocoa, etc.

(2) The Tropical Monsoon & Tropical Marine Climates

Distribution	Climate	Natural Vegetation	Economy
It is found in the zones between 5º and 30 º and 30º latitudes on either side of the equator. It is best developed in the Indian sub-continent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of Vietnam and South China, and northern Australia. Tropical Marine climate is found in Central America, West Indies, the Philippines, parts of East Africa, Madagascar, the Guyana coast and eastern Brazil.	Though the mean annual temperature is fairly high but summer and winter seasons are sharply differentiated due to the northward and southward movement of the sun. The average temperature of warm dry summer months ranges between 27ºC and 32ºC. Most of their annual rainfall occurs through cyclonic and orographic types of rains. The average annual rainfall is around 150 cm but there are many variations in the temporal and spatial distribution. Most of the annual monsoonal rainfall is received through moisture-laden South-West monsoon winds.	Trees are normally deciduous. The forests are open and less luxuriant. Most of the forests yield valuable timber like teak. Other kinds of timber are sal, acacia, and eucalyptus.	People are mainly engaged in agriculture. Agri-crops are rice, cane sugar, jute, etc.

(3) The Savanna or Sudan climate

Distribution	Climate	Natural Vegetation	Economy
It is located between 5”-20” latitudes on either side of the equator. It is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial forests and the semiarid and subtropical humid climate. The most characteristic areas of savanna climate include the Llanos of Orinico valley, the Campos of Brazil, hilly areas of Central America, southern Zaire, etc.	The Savanna climate is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons. Mean high temperature throughout the year is between 24ºC and 27º C. The annual range of temperature is between 3ºC and 8ºC. The extreme diurnal range of temperature is a characteristic of the Sudan type of climate. The average annual rainfall ranges between 100 cm and 150 cm.	It is characterized by tall grass and short trees. Trees are deciduous and hard. The grass is tall and coarse like elephant grass. Scrubland is well represented by a number of species in Australia like mallee, mulga,  Spinifex grass, etc.	Many tribes live within the Savanna lands. Some tribes live as pastoralists like the Masai and others as settled cultivators like the Hausa of northern Nigeria. However, agriculture is not much developed.

(4) The Hot Desert and Mid-latitude Desert Climates

Distribution	Climate	Natural Vegetation	Economy
Deserts are regions of scanty rainfall which may be hot like the hot deserts of the Saharan type or temperate as are the mid-latitude deserts like the Gobi. The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between latitudes 15º and 30ºN and S. They include the Sahara Desert, the largest single stretch of desert, which is 3,200 miles from east to west and at least 1,000 miles wide. The next biggest desert is the Great Australian Desert which covers almost half of the continent. The other hot deserts are the Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert. Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.In North America, the desert extends from Mexico to USA and is called by different names at different places, e.g. the Mohave Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts.In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert is the driest of all deserts with less than 0.5 inches of rainfall annually.The Patagonian Desert is more due to its ranshadow position on the leeward side of the lofty Andes than to continentality.	The hot deserts lie astride the Horse Latitudes or the Sub Tropical High-Pressure Belts where the air is descending, a condition least favorable for precipitation of any kind to take place. The relative humidity is extremely low, decreasing from 60 percent in coastal districts to less than 30 percent in desert interiors. Rain normally occurs as violent thunderstorms of the convectional type. The deserts are some of the hottest spots on earth and have high temperatures throughout the year. There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer temperature is around 86ºF. The highest shade temperature recorded is 136ºF on 13 September 1922 at Al Azizia, 25 miles south of Tripoli, Libya, in the Sahara. The annual range is 44ºF. The diurnal range of temperature in the deserts is very great.	All deserts have some form of vegetation such as grass, scrub, herbs, weeds, roots, or bulbs. The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought-resistant scrub. This includes the bulbous cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses, and scattered dwarf acacias. Plants that exist in deserts have highly specialized means of adapting themselves to the arid environment. Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture, and search for groundwater. Plants have few or no leaves and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped to reduce the loss of water through transpiration.	Despite its inhospitality, the desert has always been peopled by different groups of inhabitants. Some, like the Egyptians, have attained a high level of civilization, others like the Bedouin Arabs have fared quite well with their flocks of sheep, goats, camels, and horses. The Bushmen of the Kalahari and the Bindibu of Australia remains so primitive in their mode of living that they barely survive. Of the primitive tribes, the Bushmen and the Bindibu are the best known. Both the tribes are nomadic hunters and food gatherers, growing no crops and domesticating no animals. The Bushmen roam the Kalahari Desert. The Bindibu or Aborigines of Australia live in very much the same way as the Bushmen. They domesticate the dingo, a wild dog that assists them in tracking down kangaroos, rabbits and birds. They live in wurlies, simple shelters made of branches and tufts and grass. The Bedouin of Arabia ride on horses and live in tents; the Tuaregs of the Sahara and camel riders and dwell in grass zeriba, while the Gobi Mongols ride on horses to herd their yaks and live in portable yurts (a kind of tent). The Bedouin are the best examples of a desert group who have fared well as nomadic herdsmen. The lure of mineral wealth has attracted many immigrants into the desert. It was gold that brought immigrants scrambling into the Great Australian Desert. Some of them like Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie have become towns of considerable size. In the Kalahari Desert, the discovery of diamonds and copper has brought many white men to the ‘thirst land’ as it is called. Even in the aridest Atacama, in northern Chile, large mining camps have been established for the mining of caliche (cemented gravels) from which sodium nitrate, a valuable fertilizer, is extracted and exported to all parts of the world. Besides nitrates, coppers are also mined. Chuquicamata is the world’s largest copper town. In the deserts of North America, silver is mined in Mexico, uranium in Utah, and copper in Nevada. In recent years, the discovery of oil in many parts of the Saharan and Arabian Deserts has transformed this forgotten part of the globe.

(5) Mediterranean Climate Distribution

Distribution	Climate	Natural Vegetation	Economy
A Mediterranean climate is one that resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin. This climate type prevails in much of California, in parts of Western and South Australia, in southwestern South Africa, and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. Mediterranean climate zones are associated with the five large subtropical high-pressure cells of the oceans, the Azores High, South Atlantic High, North Pacific High, South Pacific High, and Indian Ocean High	All regions with Mediterranean climates have relatively mild winters, but summer temperatures are variable depending on the region. For instance, Athens, Greece experiences rather high temperatures in the summer (48.0 ºC has been measured in Eleusina), whereas San Francisco has cool, mild summers due to the upwelling of cold subsurface waters along the coast. Since all regions with a Mediterranean climate are near large bodies of water, temperatures are generally moderate with a comparatively small range of temperatures between the winter low and summer high. In the winter, the temperatures range from mild to very warm, depending on the distance from the open ocean, elevation, and latitude. During summer, regions of the Mediterranean climate are dominated by subtropical high-pressure cells causing no or little rainfall. During winter the polar jet stream and associated periodic storms reach into the lower latitudes of the Mediterranean zones, bringing rain, with snow at higher elevations. As a result, areas with this climate receive almost all of their yearly rainfall during the winter season, and may go the summer without having any significant precipitation.	Mediterranean vegetation includes the following: Evergreen trees such as cork oak and eucalyptus, jarrah and karri (in Australia). Evergreen coniferous trees are pines, firs, cedars, and cypresses. Bushes such as myrtle, rosemary, lavender, arbutus, thyme, and laurel. Scrubs are Maguis in southern France, Macchia in Italy, Chaparral in California, mallee in Australia, and Garigue.	Earlier the Mediterranean shorelands were once the cradle of world civilization. Nowadays, the area is important for fruit cultivation, cereal growing, wine-making and agricultural industries as well as engineering and mining. The Mediterranean lands are also known as the world’s orchard lands. A wide range of citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes, citrons, and grapefruit are grown. Of the Mediterranean oranges, perhaps, the best known are the Sunkist oranges of California, exported for table consumption and for making orange squash. The Seville oranges of Spain are small but very sweet and are particularly suitable for making marmalade.  The Jaffa oranges of Israel are equally delicious and are specially grown for export. The Mediterranean lands account for 70% of the world’s exports of citrus fruits. Cereals are also grown in the Mediterranean lands. Wheat is the leading food crop. The wheat grown is mainly hard, winter wheat. It is mostly used in making food products such as macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli. Barely is the next most popular cereal. Viticulture is widely followed in the Mediterranean lands.

(6) The Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate

Distribution	Climate	Natural Vegetation	Economy
Bordering the deserts, away from the Mediterranean regions and in the interiors of continents are the temperate grasslands. In the northern hemisphere, the grasslands are far more extensive and are entirely continental. In Eurasia, they are called the Steppes. There are isolated sections in the Pustaz of Hungary and the plains of Manchuria. In North America, the grasslands are also quite extensive and are called prairies. In the case of the Pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, the grasslands extend right to the sea and enjoy much maritime influence. In South Africa, the grasslands are sandwiched between the Drakensberg and the Kalahari Desert and are further subdivided into the more tropical Bush-veld in the north, and the more temperate High Veld in the South.	Their climate is continental with extremes of temperature. Summers are very warm. Winters are very cold in the continental steppes of Eurasia. In contrast, the steppe type of climate in the southern hemisphere is never severe. The annual range of temperature is great, a direct result of continentality. In its continental position, the annual precipitation of the Steppe Climate can be expected to be light. The average rainfall may be taken as about 20 inches, but this again varies according to the location from 10 inches to 30 inches.	The term ‘steppe vegetation’ geographically refers to the scanty vegetation of the sub-arid lands of continental Eurasia. Their greatest difference from the tropical savanna is that they are practically treeless and the grasses are much shorter. Where the rainfall is moderate, above 20 inches, the grasses are tall, fresh, and nutritious and the better described as long prairie grass. Where the rainfall is light (less than 20 inches) or unreliable, or the soil is poor, as, in the continental interiors of Asia, the short steppe type of grass prevails. The steppe grass can lie dormant throughout the prolonged drought. The appearance of temperate grasslands varies with seasons. In spring, the grass begins to appear green, fresh, and blooming with small, colorful flowers.	The temperate grasslands were once the home of grazing animals; wild horses in the Asiatic Steppes, swift-footed bison in the Prairies, and untamed buffaloes in the Pampas. Even as recently, as the last century, these grasslands were dominated by nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples like the Kirghiz of the Asiatic Steppes. The grasslands have been plowed up for extensive, mechanized wheat cultivation and are now the ‘granaries of the world’. Besides wheat, maize is increasingly cultivated in warmer and wetter areas. The tufted grasses have been replaced by the more nutritious Lucerne or alfalfa-grass.

(7) The China Type Climate OR Temperate monsoon

Distribution	Climate	Natural Vegetation	Economy
This type of climate is found on the eastern margins of continents in warm temperate latitudes, just outside the tropics. It is, in fact, the climate of most part of Chinaamodified form of monsoonal climate. It is thus also called the (Temperate Monsoon) or China Type of climate. It is sometimes referred to as the Gulf type of climate. In the southern hemisphere, this kind of climate is experienced along the warm temperate eastern coastlands of all three continents: in New South Wales with its eucalyptus forests; in Natal where cane sugar thrives; and in the maize belt of the Parana- Paraguay-Uruguay basin.	The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate is typified by a warm moist summer and a cool, dry winter. The mean monthly temperature varies between 40ºF and 78ºF and is strongly modified by maritime influence. The relative humidity is a little high in midsummer when the heat becomes oppressive and can be very trying to the white settlers, e.g. in Natal. Rainfall is more than moderate, anything from 25 inches to 60 inches. The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate supports a wide range of crops. An important feature is the fairly uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year. Rain comes either from convectional sources or as orographic rain in summer or from depressions in prolonged showers in winter. Local storms, e.g. typhoons and hurricanes, also occur.	The eastern margins of warm temperate latitude have a much heavier rainfall than either the western or the continental interiors and thus have luxuriant vegetation. The lowlands carry both evergreen broadleaved forests and deciduous trees quite similar to those of the tropical monsoon forests. On the highlands, are various species of conifers such as pines and cypresses which are important softwoods Conditions are well suited to a rich variety of plant life including grass, ferns, lianas, bamboos, palms, and forests. The well-distributed rainfall all year round makes the regions look green at all times. In eastern Australia, the most important are eucalyptus trees. From the forests of south-eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, northeastern Argentina comes valuable warm temperate timbers such as the Parana pine and the quebracho (axe breaker) and wild yerba mate trees, from which the leaves are gathered for making Paraguay. In Natal, the warm Mozambique current encourages heavy precipitation along the coast and many species of palm tree thrive. The highlands yield extensive forests of chestnuts, ironwood, and black woods. The forests of China and southern Japan also have considerable economic value and include oak, camphor, camellia, and magnolia. The Gulf states of the USA have lowland deciduous forests.	The warm temperate eastern margins are the most productive parts of the middle latitudes. Rice, tea, and mulberries are extensively grown in monsoon China. Elsewhere are found other products of economic importance, e.g. cane sugar in Natal, coffee and maize in South America, and dairying in New South Wales and Victoria. The Chinese peasants raise ‘wet padi’ or ‘swamp rice’ n flooded fields. Farming is usually on a subsistence basis. Agriculture in the Gulf states of America differs from that of monsoon China. The most important crops are corn, cotton, and tobacco. The chief food crop raised is. In fact, corn of maize. Of the cash crops grown in the Gulf States, none is comparable with cotton. The Gulf type of climate is undoubtedly the best for cotton growing. Its long, hot growing season with 200 days frost-free and a moderately high temperature of about 75ºF permits the crop to grow slowly and mature within six months. The Sea Island cotton grown in the Islands off the coast of Georgia and South Carolina is long stapled and is the best in the world. Another interesting crop closely associated with the Gulf type of climate is tobacco. The humid atmosphere, the warmth, and the well-drained soils of the Gulf states enable tobacco to be successfully cultivated in many of the eastern states of the USA. The Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate DistributionThe cool temperate western margins are under the permanent influence of the Westerlies all round the year. From Britain, the climatic belt stretches far inland into the lowlands of North-West Europe, including such regions as northern and western France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, western Norway, and also northwestern Iberia. There is so much oceanic influence on both the temperature and the precipitation that the climate is also referred to as the North-West European Maritime Climate. In the southern hemisphere, the climate is experienced in southern Chile, Tasmania, and most parts of New Zealand, particularly in South Island.

(8) The Cool Temperate Continental Climate/Boreal Climate OR Taiga Climate OR Siberian Climate

Distribution	Climate	Natural Vegetation	Economy
The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate is experienced only in the northern hemisphere where the continents within the high latitudes have a broad east-west spread. On its poleward side, it merges into the Arctic tundra of Canada and Eurasia around the Arctic Circle. Southwards, the climate becomes less severe and fades into the temperate Steppe climate.	The climate of the Siberian type is characterized by a bitterly cold winter of long duration, and cool brief summer. Spring and autumn are merely brief transitional periods. The isotherm of 50°F for the warmest month forms the poleward boundary of the Siberian climate and the winter months are always below freezing. An annual range of 54°F is common in the Siberian type of climate. The extremes of temperature are so great in Siberia that it is often referred to as the ‘cold pole of the earth’.Some of the lowest temperatures in the world are recorded in Verkhoyansk. The interiors of the Eurasian continent are so remote from the maritime influence that annual precipitation cannot be high. Generally speaking, a total of 15 to 25 inches is typical of the annual precipitation of this sub- Arctic type of climate. It is quite well distributed throughout the year, with a summer maximum from convectional rain. In winter the precipitation is in the form of snow.	No other trees are so well adapted as the conifers to withstand such as inhospitable environment as the Siberian type of climate. The coniferous forest belts of Eurasia and North America are the richest sources of softwood. The world’s greatest softwood producers are USSR, the USA, Canada, and the Fennoscandian countries. There are four major species in coniferous forests. Pine, e.g. white pine, red pine, Scots pine, Jackpine, lodgepole pine.Fir, e.g. Douglas fir and balsam fir,Spruce.Larch.	The coniferous forest regions of the northern hemisphere are comparatively little developed. The various species of pine, fir larch, and spruce are felled and transported to the sawmills for the extraction of temperate softwoods. There is little agriculture as few crops can survive in the sub-Arctic climate of these northerly lands. Only in the more sheltered valleys and the land bordering the steppes are some cereals (barley, oats, rye) and root crops (potatoes) raised for local needs. Many of the Samoyeds and Yakuts of Siberia and some Canadians are engaged in hunting, trapping, and fishing.

(9) The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin/Laurentian Climate

Distribution	Climate	Natural Vegetation	Economy
The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climate is an intermediate type of climate between the British and the Siberian type of climate. It has features of both the maritime and the continental climates. Laurentian type of climate is found only in two regions. One is north-eastern North America, including eastern Canada, northeast USA. This may be referred to as the North American region. The other region is the eastern coastlands of Asia, including eastern Siberia, North China, Manchuria, Korea, and northern Japan. It may be referred to as the Asiatic region.   In the southern hemisphere, this climatic type is absent because only a small section of the southern continents extends south of the latitude of 40ºS. The only possible location is in eastern Patagonia, south of Bahia Blanca to Terra del Fuego.	The Laurentian type of climate has cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers. Winter temperatures may be well below freezing point and snowfalls to quite a depth. Summers are as warm, as the tropics (70º- 80ºF). Though rain falls throughout the year, there is a distinct summer maximum from the easterly winds from the oceans. Of the annual precipitation of 30 to 60 inches, two-thirds come in the summer.	The predominant vegetation of the Laurentian type of climate is cool temperate forest. Generally, the forest tends to be coniferous north of the 50ºN parallel of latitude. In the Asiatic region, the coniferous forests are, in fact, a continuation of the great coniferous belt of the taiga. South of latitude 50ºN, the coniferous forests give way to deciduous forests. Oak, beech, maple and birch are the principal trees.	Lumbering and its associated timber, paper, and pulp industries are the most important economic undertaking. Lumbering has always been a major occupation of this sparsely populated part of eastern Asia and timber is a leading export item. Agriculture is less important in view of the severity of the winter and its long duration. Potatoes thrive over large areas of the podzolized soils, while hardy cereals like oats and barley can be sown and successfully harvested before the onset of the cold winter. A number of other interesting crops are produced in the Asiatic region such as soya beans groundnuts, sesame, rapeseeds, tung oil, and mulberry. In the North American region, arable farming is not carried out on a sizable scale, except in the more favored localities. Farmers are engaged in dairy farming, hay cultivation, and in mild maritime areas, fruit growing.

(10) The Arctic or Polar Climate/Tundra Climate/Polar Climate/Arctic Climate

Distribution	Climate	Natural Vegetation	Economy
The polar type of climate and vegetation are found mainly north of the Arctic Circle in the northern hemisphere. The ice-caps are confined to Greenland and to the highlands of these high-latitude regions, where the ground is permanently snowcovered. The lowlands, with a few months ice-free, have tundra vegetation.	The polar climate is characterized by a very low mean annual temperature and its warmest month in June seldom rises to more than 50°F. Winters are long and very severe, summers are cool and brief. At the North Pole, there are six months without light in winter. The ground remains solidly frozen for all but four months, inaccessible to plants. Frost occurs at any time and blizzards, reaching a velocity of 130 miles an hour are not infrequent. Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow, falling in winter. Snowfall varies with locality. Convectional rainfall is generally absent because of the low rate of evaporation and the lack of moisture in the cold polar air.	In such an adverse environment as the tundra, few plants survive. The greatest inhibiting factor is the region’s deficiency in heat. There are no trees in the tundra. Such an environment can support only the lowest form of vegetation, mosses, lichens, and sedges.	Human activities of the tundra are largely confined to the coast. The few people who live in the tundra live semi-nomadic life. In Greenland, northern Canada, and Alaska live the Eskimos. They used to live as hunters, fishers, and food gatherers. During winter they live in compact igloos and in summer when they move out to hunt they pitch portable tents of skins by the side of the stream. Their food is derived from fish, seals, walruses, and polar bears. In the Eurasian tundra are other nomadic tribes such as the Lapps of northern Finland and Scandinavia, the Samoyeds of Siberia, Yakuts, Koryaks, and Chuckchi of northeastern Asia.

(11) British Type of Climate/North-West European Maritime Climate

Distribution	Climate	Natural Vegetation	Economy
The cool temperate western margins are under the influence of the Westerlies all-round the year. They are the regions of frontal cyclonic activity [Temperate Cyclones]. This type of climate is typical to Britain, hence the name ‘British Type’.Also called as North-West European Maritime Climate due to greater oceanic influence.	The mean annual temperatures are usually between 40°F and 60°F. The warmest month is 63°F and the coldest month is just around 40°F, thus giving an annual temperature range of only 24°F. Summers are, in fact, never very warm. The climate is ideal for maximum comfort and mental alertness. Winters are abnormally mild. The British type of climate has adequate rainfall throughout the year with a tendency towards a slight winter or autumn maximum from cyclonic sources. Since the rain-bearing winds come from the west, the western margins have the heaviest rainfall. The amount decreases eastwards with increasing distance from the sea.	The natural vegetation of this climate type is deciduous forest. Some of the more common species include oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, poplar, and hornbeam. In the wetter areas grow willows, alder, and aspen. Elsewhere are found other species, e.g. chestnut, sycamore, maple, and lime. The deciduous hardwoods are excellent for both fuel and industrial purposes. In Tasmania, the temperate eucalyots are also extensively felled for the humbering industry.	A very large part of the deciduous woodlands has been cleared for fuel, the timber of agriculture. Fishing is particularly important in Britain, Norway, and British Columbia. Though market gardening is practiced throughout the world wherever there is a large urban population, nowhere else is it so highly specialized as in North-West Europe. In north-western, Europe intensive market gardening is carried out in many specialized areas e.g. the Vales of York and Evesham in the United Kingdom. It is no wonder the Australians nicknamed Tasmania the ‘garden state. Throughout Britain and northwestern Europe, farmers practice both arable farming and pastoral farming. Amongst the cereals, wheat is the most extensively grown. The next most important cereal raised in the mixed farm is bare. The most important animals kept in the mixed farm are cattle. North-western Europe was originally the home of many world-renowned cattle breeds. Britain is the home of some of the best-known sheep breeds, e.g. Leicesters, Lincolns, and Southdowns. In the southern hemisphere, sheep rearing is the chief occupation of New Zealand, with its greatest concentration in the Canterbury Plain.

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