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The Vice President a few months back had advised top priority and coordinated action by both the Centre and the states to bring in reforms. He suggested that the 4 Ps – Parliament, political leaders, policymakers and press – must proactively adopt a positive bias towards agriculture.

Observing that many people are leaving agriculture and migrating to urban areas because of rising input costs and unfavourable market conditions, he said the problems that are holding back Indian farmers from realizing their full potential must be identified and solved.

India Agriculture: A backgrounder

While agriculture’s share in India’s economy has progressively declined to less than 15% due to the high growth rates of the industrial and services sectors, the sector’s importance in India’s economic and social fabric goes well beyond this indicator as:

• Population dependency: Nearly three-quarters of India’s families depend on rural incomes.
• Rural sector: The majority of India’s poor (some 770 million people or about 70 percent) are found in rural areas.
• Food Security: India’s food security depends on producing cereal crops, as well as increasing its production of fruits, vegetables and milk.

India is a global agricultural powerhouse. It is the world’s largest producer of milk, pulses, and spices, and has the world’s largest cattle herd (buffaloes), as well as the largest area under wheat, rice and cotton.

It is the second-largest producer of rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, farmed fish, sheep & goat meat, fruit, vegetables and tea.

Challenges to Indian Agriculture

Three agriculture sector challenges will be important to India’s overall development and the improved welfare of its rural poor:

[1] Raising agricultural productivity per unit of land

• Raising productivity per unit of land will need to be the main engine of agricultural growth as virtually all cultivable land is farmed.
• Water resources are also limited and water for irrigation must contend with increasing industrial and urban needs.
• All measures to increase productivity will need exploiting, amongst them: increasing yields, diversification to higher value crops, and developing value chains to reduce marketing costs.

[2] Reducing rural poverty

• Rural development must also benefit the poor, landless, women, scheduled castes and tribes.
• Moreover, there are strong regional disparities: the majority of India’s poor are in rain-fed areas or in the Eastern Indo-Gangetic plains.
• Hence, poverty alleviation is a central pillar of the rural development efforts.

[3] Food security needs

• The sharp rise in food-grain production during India’s Green Revolution of the 1970s enabled the country to achieve self-sufficiency in food-grains and stave off the threat of famine.
• However, the recent slow-down in agricultural growth has become a major cause for concern.
• India’s rice yields are one-third of China’s and about half of those in Vietnam and Indonesia. The same is true for most other agricultural commodities.

Ground challenges

[a] Small and Fragmented Land Holdings:

• Small and scattered land holdings apply to a small plot of land that is uneconomical.
• An agricultural farm must have a certain amount of land in order to be cost effective in terms of purchasing and utilizing inputs, as well as harvesting.

[b] Quality seeds

• The seed is a vital and essential inputs for the crops yields and maintaining agricultural production growth.
• The delivery of high quality seeds is just as important as its processing.
• Unfortunately, good superiority seed are out of reach for the majority of the farmers,  marginal farmers and particularly small, due to exorbitant seed  rates.

[c] Manures, Fertilizers and Biocides

• For hundreds of years, Indian soil were used to produce crops with no regard for replenishment. As a result, soils have been depleted and exhausted, leading to low productivity.
• Almost all of the crop has among the lowermost average yields in the world.
• It is a critical concern that can be resolved by increasing the use of fertilizers and manures.

[d] Irrigation challenges

• Despite  the  fact  that  India  is a  world’s 2^nd  largest  moistened  country  after  the  China,  only  one 3^rd  of  the  crop  production  is  irrigated. 
• In  a  rainy  climate  country  like  India,  where  rainfall  is  unpredictable,  unreliable,  and  erratic,  irrigation  is  the  most  significant  agricultural  input. 
• India will  not  be  able  to  make  sustainable  development in agriculture until and unless much than half of the collected area is irrigated.

[e] Lack of Mechanization

• Despite the large scales mechanization of the agriculture in few part of the world, most agricultural operation are still carried out manually.
• Irrigating, sowing, thinning, ploughing and pruning, harvesting threshing, weeding, and transporting the crops all make little or no use of machines.
• This is particularly true for small and marginal farmers.  It leads to significant waste of labour and human labour yields per capita.

Priority Areas for Support

[A] Enhancing agricultural productivity, competitiveness, and rural growth

(1) Promoting new technologies and reforming agricultural research and extension:

• Major reform and strengthening of India’s agricultural research and extension systems is one of the most important needs for agricultural growth.
• These services have declined over time due to chronic underfunding of infrastructure and operations, no replacement of aging researchers or broad access to state-of-the-art technologies.
• Research now has little to provide beyond the time-worn packages of the past.

(2) Improving Water Resources and Irrigation/Drainage Management

• Agriculture is India’s largest user of water.
• However, increasing competition for water between industry, domestic use and agriculture has highlighted the need to plan and manage water on a river basin and multi-sectoral basis.
• As urban and other demands multiply, less water is likely to be available for irrigation. Ways to radically enhance the productivity of irrigation (“more crop per drop”) need to be found.
• Piped conveyance, better on-farm management of water, and use of more efficient delivery mechanisms such as drip irrigation are among the actions that could be taken.

(3) Facilitating crop diversification to higher-value commodities

• Encouraging farmers to diversify to higher value commodities will be a significant factor for higher agricultural growth, particularly in rain-fed areas where poverty is high.
• Moreover, considerable potential exists for expanding agro-processing and building competitive value chains from producers to urban centers and export markets.
• While diversification initiatives should be left to farmers and entrepreneurs, the Government can, first and foremost, liberalize constraints to marketing, transport, export and processing.

(4) Promoting high growth commodities

• Some agricultural sub-sectors have particularly high potential for expansion, notably dairy.
• The livestock sector, primarily due to dairy, contributes over a quarter of agricultural GDP and is a source of income for 70% of India’s rural families, mostly those who are poor and headed by women.
• Growth in milk production, at about 4% per annum, has been brisk, but future domestic demand is expected to grow by at least 5% per annum.
• Milk production is constrained, however, by the poor genetic quality of cows, inadequate nutrients, inaccessible veterinary care, and other factors.

(5) Developing markets, agricultural credit and public expenditures

• India’s legacy of extensive government involvement in agricultural marketing has created restrictions in internal and external trade.
• Even so, private sector investment in marketing, value chains and agro-processing is growing, but much slower than potential.
• While some restrictions are being lifted, considerably more needs to be done to enable diversification and minimize consumer prices.
• Improving access to rural finance for farmers is another need as it remains difficult for farmers to get credit.

[B] Poverty alleviation and community actions

• While agricultural growth will, in itself, provide the base for increasing incomes, for the 170 million or so rural persons that are below the poverty line, additional measures are required to make this growth inclusive.
• For instance, a rural livelihoods program that empowers communities to become self-reliant has been found to be particularly effective and well-suited for scaling-up.
• This program promotes the formation of self-help groups, increases community savings, and promotes local initiatives to increase incomes and employment.

[C] Sustaining the environment and future agricultural productivity

(1) Over-use management

• In parts of India, the over-pumping of water for agricultural use is leading to falling groundwater levels. Conversely, water-logging is leading to the build-up of salts in the soils of some irrigated areas.
• In rain-fed areas on the other hand, where the majority of the rural population live, agricultural practices need adapting to reduce soil erosion and increase the absorption of rainfall.
• Watershed management programs can be implemented where communities engage in land planning and adopt agricultural practices that protect soils.
• This can lead to increase in water absorption and raise productivity through higher yields and crop diversification.

(2) Climate change mitigation

• More extreme events – droughts, floods, erratic rains – are expected and would have greatest impact in rain-fed areas.
• The watershed program, allied with initiatives from agricultural research and extension, may be the most suited agricultural program for promoting new varieties of crops and improved farm practices.

[D] Marketing reforms

• In the absence of properly organized market and sufficient transportations facilities, Indian farmers face a problem of the low incomes from their vendible surplus crops.
• As a result, farmers have fallen prey to distributers for the fast discarding of their crop at the lower price and uneconomic.
• Price fluctuations in agricultural product are also a significant threat in Indian agriculture.
• Price stability is important not only for farmers, but also for buyers, exporters, and agro-based industry.
• The price movements of the agricultural product in India are neither the smooth nor the uniform, resulting in a fluctuating pattern.

Various govt initiatives

The Government of India has taken several steps which include:

• Improvement in soil fertility through the Soil Health Card scheme.
• Providing improved access to irrigation and enhanced water efficiency through Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY).
• Supporting organic farming through Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY).
• Support for creation of a unified national agriculture market to boost the income of farmers.
• A new scheme, Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) has been launched for implementation from Kharif 2016 to mitigate the risk of crop loss in agriculture sector.
• Marketing reforms through the three farm laws.

Conclusion

• Among the major sources of agrarian distress are low levels of farmers’ incomes and their fluctuations over the years.
• The problem is acute and is getting severe with the passage of time, affecting large chunks of the population that make living with agriculture.
• Persistent low levels of income may also adversely affects the future of agriculture sector in India.
• Adequate attention is required to improve the agricultural incomes and thus the welfare of the farmers to secure future of agriculture in the country.
• Reaching this end will reduce persistent disparity between farm and non-farm income, alleviate agrarian distress, encourage inclusive growth and infuse dynamism in the farming sector.
• Decent incomes in farm sector will also attract youth towards the farming profession relieving the non-farm job sector of the continuing burden.

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UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Based Most Probable Questions on International Relations – by Sukanya Rana

Q1) Consider statements on Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) Partnership Initiative:

1. Apatani wet rice cultivation and Kuttanad wetland agriculture are sites under FAO GIAHS.

2. Kuttanad Wetland Agriculture System is the only system in India that favours rice cultivation below sea level.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?

a) 1 only

b) 2 only

c) Both 1 and 2

d) Neither 1 nor 2

Q2) Consider the following statements on International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR):

1. The ICCPR is monitored by the United Nations Human Rights Council.

2. All UN members are part of ICCPR.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?

a) 1 only

b) 2 only

c) Both 1 and 2

d) Neither 1 nor 2

Q3) Consider the following statements:

1. Chemical Weapons Convention is an arms control treaty administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW).

2. Non signatories to biological weapons convention include: Israel, Somalia, Iran, Syria.

Select correct option:

a) 1 only

b) 2 only

c) 1 and 2

d) None

Q4) Consider the following statements:

1. Prevention of arms race in outer space is a document governed under the outer space treaty.

2. Fissile material cut off treaty is legally binding on its signatories.

Select correct option:

a) 1 only

b)2 only

c) 1 and 2

d) None

Q5) Consider the following statements with respect to Exercise Shantir Ogroshena 2021 

1. It is a multilateral military exercise conducted by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 

2. India and Pakistan are participating in the exercise along with Bhutan and Sri Lanka.

Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

a) 1 only 

b) 2 only 

c) Both 1 and 2 

d) Neither 1 nor 2

16th Sept 2021

 

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Vedas

• It is written in highly stylized poetic style and the language is full of symbols and myths.
• The Vedas were initially handed down orally by generations of Brahmin families but it is estimated by historians that they were compiled around 1500 BC-1000 BC.
• In the Hindu tradition, they are considered sacred because they are the divine revelations, which were determined by gods to guide humans eternally.
• They also have larger implications on our lives as they treat the universe and its inhabitants as one big family and preach Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.
• There are four major Vedas: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. These were mostly written by vedic seers and poets called the rishis who envisioned the cosmic mysteries and wrote them in the form of Sanskrit poetry.
• All the Vedas give prominence to yagna (sacrifice). The Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas accompany each Veda.

Brahmanas

• The Brahmanas are part of the Hindu sruti (revealed knowledge) literature. Each Veda has a Brahmana attached to it, which is essentially a collection of texts with commentaries on the particular Veda.
• They are usually a mixture of legends, facts, philosophy and detailed explanations of Vedic rituals.
• They also consist of instructions as to how to properly conduct rituals and enunciate the science of sacrifice.
• They also explain the symbolic significance of the sacred words used in the rituals.
• Each Veda has its accompanying Brahmana.

Arayankas

• The Arayankas are also texts attached to the Vedas and they describe the rituals and sacrifices involved in the Vedas from various perspectives.
• They are said to be compilations of ritualistic information on the birth and death cycles as well as the complexity of the soul.
• It is argued that holy and learned men, called Munis, who preferred to dwell within the limits of the forests, taught them.

Upanishads

• We have more than 200 known Upanishads and the teacher usually passed them down verbally to his students in the forest while they sat in front of him.
• This tradition was part of the guru-shishya parampara.
• These are treatises written in Sanskrit and give an account of the Vedas in predominantly monastic and mystical terms.
• As they are generally the last part of the Vedas, they are also known as Vedanta or ‘end (anta) of the Veda’.
• The Upanishads are said to have the ‘truth’ about human life and show the way towards human salvation or moksha.
• Out of the above-mentioned 200 Upanishads, a set of 108 Upanishads has been called the Muktika Canon.

Sanskrit Drama

Kalidasa	Malavikagnimitra (The love story of Malavika a maiden of Queen and Agnimitra the son of Pushyamitra Shunga)   Vikramorvasiya (Love story of Vikram and Urvasi)   Abhigyana Shakuntala (the recognition of Shakuntala)
Sudraka	Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart) Love affair of young brahmin Charudatta with a wealthy courtesan.
Vishakhdutta	Mudra Rakshasa (is a political drama and narrates the ascent of king Chandragupta Maurya to power in India)   Devi Chandraguptam
Bhavabhuti	Uttara Ramacharitam (the later life of Rama). It was written in 700 AD.
Bhasa	Swapnavasavadatta (Vasavadatta in a dream), Pancharatra, Urubhanga (story of Duryodhana during and after his fight with Bhima.
Harshavardhana (wrote 3 Sanskrit plays)	Ratnavali (about the love story of princess Ratnavali, daughter of the king of Ceylon and king Udayana. We find here, the mention of the celebration of Holi for the first time).

Other Major Sanskrit texts

Charak	Charak Samhita (Book on Medicine)
Sushruta	Sushruta Samhita (Book on surgery).
Madhava	Madhava Nidana (Book on pathology)
Varamihira	Pancha-Siddhantika (Book on astrology)   Brihat Samhita (book on wide-ranging subjects like planetary movements, geology, architecture, etc.
Aryabhatta	Aryabhatiya (Book on astronomy and mathematics)
Lagdhacharya	Book on astrology
Pingala	Book on Mathematics
Bhaskara	Siddhanta Shiromani

Literature in Pali and Prakrit

• It is said that Lord Buddha used Pali to give his sermons and it is in the same language that they have been recorded. The Buddhist literature can be divided into Canonical and Noncanonical works.
• The Canonical literature consists of ‘Triptikas’ or baskets (of knowledge).
• The three Tripitakas are: Vinaya Pitaka, which covers the rules and regulations, which should be followed by the Buddhist monks. The Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues and speeches of the Buddha that deal with morality and righteous dharma. Lastly, the Abhidhamma Pitaka that concentrates on the philosophy and metaphysics.
• It also contains discussions on various topics like ethics, theory of knowledge and psychology.
• The Jatakas are the best example of Buddhist non-canonical literature. These are compilation of the stories from the previous births of Buddha.
• The stories of the Bodhisattva or the (future) would-be Buddha are also discussed in these Jatakas. Although these stories propagate Buddhist religious doctrines, they are available in Sanskrit and Pali. Each story of the birth of the Buddha is equivalent to a Jataka tale.
• It was believed that Buddha passed through 550 births before he was born as Gautama. These tales combine the popular tales, ancient mythology as well as sociopolitical conditions in North India between 600 BC and 200 BC.
• The great epic Buddhacharita by Aswaghosha (78 A.D.) is another example of Buddhist literature in Sanskrit. Another major religion, Jainism, produced texts in Prakrit.
• They form the basis of the Jain canonical literature. Some of the Jain texts were also written in Sanskrit like the Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha of Siddharasi (906 A.D.).
• The most important Jain texts written in Prakrit are the Angas, the Upangas and the Parikramas. Apart from these the Chhedab Sutra and the Malasutra are also considered to be sacred by the Jains.
• Amongst the secular writers attached to the Jains were Hemachandra who wrote a treatise on lexicography and grammar. Mention could also be made of Haribhadra Suri who wrote in the eighth century.
• These treatises help us to expound on the sociopolitical history of areas densely populated by the Jaina community, which mostly comprised of traders.
• Lastly, Prakrit poetry has some elements of erotica through texts like the Gathasaptashati (700 verses) by Hala written in 300 A.D.
• While Hala has only contributed 44 verses in this volume, what sets this apart is a large number of female poetesses who have contributed to this work.
• The most prominent amongst them are Pahai, Roha, Sasippaha, Mahavi and Reva.

Other Buddhist literary texts

• Dipavamsa: It was probably written in 3rd-4th centuries BCE in Anuradhapur (Sri Lanka), during the reign of King Dhatusena. It literally means “Chronicle of the Island”. It mentions about the visit of Buddha to Sri Lanka and the relics of Buddha.
• Milinda Panha: It contains a dialogue between King Meander (or Milinda) and Buddhist monk Nagasena. It means “Questions of Milinda”. These are one of the highest philosophical enquiries.
• Mahavamsa: It is an epic poem written in Pali language. It dates back to 3rd-4th centuries BCE during the reign of King Vijaya. It is a historical account of various kingdoms of South Asia.
• Mahavastu: It contains Jakata and Avadana tales. It is written in mixed Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit. It is said to compiled between 2nd century BC-4th century AD.
• Lalitavistara Sutra: meaning “The play in full”, it is an important Mahayana text. It contains various stories associated with the life of Buddha till his first sermon at Sarnath.
• Udana: It is one of the oldest Theravada (Old School) Buddhist text. It contains the famous story of “Blind Men and the Elephant”.
• Bodhi Vamsa: It was prose-poem, written in century 10th century in Sri Lanka. It was translated from a Sinhalese version. It was written by Upatissa and is written in Pali. Udanavarga: It is a compilation which contains utterances of Buddha and his disciples. It is written in Sanskrit.
• Mahavibhasa Shastra: It is said to be written around 150CE. It contains discussions about other non-Buddhist philosophies also. It is essentially a Mahayan text.
• Abhidharmamoksha: It is written by Vasubandhu and is a widely respected text. It is written in Sanskrit. It contains discussion on Abhidharma.
• Visuddhimagga: It is written by Buddhagosha in 5th century. It is a text of Theravada doctrine. It contains discussions on various teachings of Buddha.

Jain Literature

• Apart from writing in Prakrit and Ardha Magadhi, Jain monks wrote in many other languages depending on the era, region and the patrons who supported them.
• They wrote in Tamil during the Sangam Age in south India.
• They also wrote in Sanskrit, Shauraseni, Gujarati, and Marathi.
• They can be broadly divided into two major categories; Canonical or religious texts called Jain Agamas or Agam and non-canonical literary works.

Jain Agamas

• They are the sacred texts and are said to be the teachings of the Jain tirthankars. They are said to be originally compiled by the Gandharas who were immediate disciples of Mahavira.
• These texts are important for Svetambaras. The present Angas are said to re-compiled in a council of monks of Svetambaras sect held in Vallabhi (Gujarat) during mid-5th century AD.
• The Digamabara sect believes that original teachings were lost long ago and they do not accept the authority of Agamas compiled in Valabhi. Agamas comprised of 46 texts.
• They are 12 Angas, 12 Upanga, 10 Prakirnakas, 4 Mulasutras, 6 Chedasutras, 2 Chulika Sutra. They were written in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit language.
• The Angas teach reverence for all forms of life, strict codes of vegetarianism, asceticism, compassion and non-violence.
• The 12 Angas are:

1. Acharanga Sutra: Oldest agama.
2. Sutrakritanga: describes code of conduct for Jain monks, metaphysics etc
3. Sthananga Sutra.
4. Samavayanga Sutra: discussion on essence of Jainism, astronomy, mathematics, etc.
5. Vyakhyaprajnapti or Bhagavati Sūtra
6. Jnatrdharma Katha.
7. Upasakadasa
8. Antakrddaasah
9. Anuttaraupapatikadasah.
10. Prasnavyakaranani: Description of sins.
11. Vipakasruta: stories and illustrations.
12. Drstivada: contained 14 Purvas

• Digambaras gave sacred status to two works: the Karmaprabhrita (discussion on Karma) or Shatkhandagama and the Kashayaprabhrita.
• Some other important Jain works and authors are:
• Bhadrabahu (3rd century BC) is one of the greatest Jain monks and was the teacher of Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote the sacred Uvasaggaharam Stotra, Kalpa Sutra (Biographies of Jain Tirthankars). He was the pioneer of the Digambara sect.
• Acharya Kundkund’s Samayasara and Niyamasara discusses the Jain philosophy.
• Samanta Bhadra’s Ratna Karanda Sravakachara (Life of a Jaina householder) and Aptamimansa was written around 2nd century AD.
• Ilango Adigal’s Silappadikaram considered one of the greatest epics of Tamil literature written in 2nd century AD, is a moralistic discourse. It revolves around Kannagi, who having lost her husband to a miscarriage of justice at the court of the Pandyan Dynasty, wreaks her revenge on his kingdom.
• Tirutakkatevar’s Civaka Cintamani is also one of the epics of Tamil literature.
• Nalatiyar, an ancient Tamil text was written by Jain monks.
• Umasvati’s Tattvartha-sutra (1st -2nd century AD) is an important jain work in Sanskrit on logic, epistemology, ethics, and astronomy.
• Jinasena (8th-9th centuries) was a revered Digamabara monk. He wrote Mahapurana and Harivamshapurana. He was the disciple of another famous Jain monk Virasena.
• Haribhadra Suri (6th century AD) a Jain author wrote in Sanskrit.
• Hemachandra Suri (12th century), a famous scholar wrote grammars of Sanskrit and Prakrit.

Tamil (Sangam) Literature

• ‘Sangam’ means fraternity and this literature was very popular amongst the masses.
• This literature is a collection of works that contains approximately 2381 poems that have been attributed to 473 poets and there is a corpus of literature written by 102 poets that remains anonymous.
• The poets included men and women from different classes of society. The literary tradtion was so popular that the period between 300 BC and 300 AD, during which most of these were composed and compiled, is often called Sangam period.
• There are two major schools of Sangam literature: aham/agam which is the ‘inner field’ and concentrates on the abstract discussion of human aspects like love, sexual relations, etc.
• The second school is the ‘puram’ or the ‘outer field’ which discusses the human experiences like social life, ethics, valour, customs, etc.
• This literature bears the name ‘Sangam’ because the kingdom of Pandya organised assemblies where poets, bards and writers would flock from various parts of South India.
• These assemblies were called ‘Sangamas’ and the literature produced in the duration of these assemblies was called Sangam literature.
• There were three Sangams organized over a period of 600-700 years. However, the conclusive historical account of the first two Sangams are not available.
• The first and second Sangams are considered legends and myths by many scholars. There were three major Sangams organized:

Sangam	Kingdom	Place of organization	Chairman	Books
First or Head	Pandya	Madurai	Agastya or Shiva	No book has survived. Used Agattiyam as grammar.
Second or Middle Sangam period	Pandya	Kapatapuram	Initially, it was Agastya and then his disciple Tolkappiyar took over.	Around 2,000 poems were collected and compiled into Tolkappiyam. Tolkappiyam is a textbook on Tamil grammar giving the inflection and syntax of words and sentences and also includes classification of habitats, animals, plants and human beings
Third	Pandya	Madurai	Nakkirar	Most of the existing corpus of Sangam literature was written.

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Context

• E-Governance became an inevitable evolution in successful governance in the modem era.
• As a coordinator and service provider, the Governments are required to embrace Information and Communication Technology to meet the demands of their citizens.
• ‘Simple, Moral, Accountable, Responsive and transparent’ (SMART) Governance became the order of the day to build effective and efficient governance.
• India being the largest democracy in the world, started adopting e-governance in the 1970s and adopted the change quickly, and progressed towards good governance policy at a rapid speed.

E-Governance

• The e-Governance aims to make the interaction between government and citizens (G2C), government and business enterprises (G2B), and inter-agency relationships (G2G) convenient, transparent, friendly, effective, and cost-effective.

Four phases of e-governance

A/c to Gartner E-Governance Maturity Model, there are four phases:

• Phase I- Information
• Phase II- Interaction
• Phase III-Transaction
• Phase IV-Transformation

• To overcome the challenges such as inter-operability, infrastructural challenges, digital divide and Covid-19 pandemic, etc., India is taking new initiatives to develop the overall effectiveness of service delivery mechanism from a citizen’s perspective and trying to bridge the gap between urban and rural e-governance structures.
• The Government of India introduced the National e-Governance Services Delivery Assessment (NeSDA) framework in August 2019 to assess the effectiveness of the e-Governance initiatives of the different government departments from the central to the local level.
• The Online Service Index (OSI) of NeSDA is based on the UNDESA e-Governance survey to develop the e-Governance structure of India at an international standard.

National e-Governance Plan (NeGP)

VISION: “Make all Government services accessible to the common man in his locality, through common service delivery outlets and ensure efficiency, transparency& reliability of such services at affordable costs to realize the basic needs of the common man “.

The following strategy, approach& methodology is adopted for successful implementation of the NeGP:

• Common Support Infrastructures such as SWANs, SDCs, CSCs and Electronic Service Delivery Gateways.
• Suitable governance systems development to monitor and coordinate the implementation of NeGP
• Centralized Initiative, Decentralized Implementation
• Public-Private Partnership
• Integrative elements
• Programme approach at the National and State levels
• Facilitator role of’ DIT III implementation of NeGP by various Ministries and State Governments by providing technical assistance
• Ownership of Ministries over Mission Mode Projects (MMPs)

Various initiatives

Digital India Initiative

• The Digital India Initiative was launched in the year 2015 to bridge the gap between urban and rural areas by promoting investment in digital infrastructure, fostering digital literacy, and expanding online services provision.
• The vision of the Digital India programme is to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy by focusing on the following key vision areas:

• Digital infrastructure as a core utility to every citizen.
• Governance & Services On demand
• Digital empowerment of citizens

National e-Governance Services Delivery Assessment (NeSDA)

• NeSDA was launched to promote the participation of various departments and ministries at State and Central level to adopt the e-Government framework in day-to-day functioning.
• To encourage e-participation of citizens and businesses in policymaking and to help India in achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
• To provide efficient public service delivery to all levels of population in the country by reducing the digital divide.
• To develop innovative and improved public service delivery by developing ICT infrastructure capacity building and to develop a simple single-entry point for all e-services at every level of governance i.e., from central to local self-governance.
• The parameters of assessing under NeSDA are accessibility, ease of use, ‘end service delivery, integrated service delivery, content availability, information security & privacy, and status and request tracking.

E-Governance & Covid-19 Pandemic

• During the current pandemic, e-governance stepped into the central role as a necessary element of communication, leadership, and coordination between policymakers, administration, and society.
• Digital technologies established through e-governance initiatives became an important source for sharing knowledge, encouraging collaborative research, and providing transparent guidance to the citizens.
• E-governance became an important ICT tool for disseminating Covid-19 related data in a more transparent, safe, interoperable, and secure manner.
• The online database of Covid-19 cases, lockdown guidelines, travel restrictions, locating the vacant beds in the hospitals, oxygen cylinders, financial assistance and relief distribution, etc., were carried out only through e-governance infrastructure.
• Jan Dhan Aadhaar-Mobile (JAM) delivery system became the main vehicle for the distribution of the cash payments, rations of food supplies through the public distribution system, the distribution of the reliefpackage under Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan (PMGK) scheme supported thepeople in the pandemic.
• AarogyaSetu App and Co-WIN App are the main e-governancetools that supported the citizens andgovernment to trace the Covid patientsand manage the vaccination.
• E-Doctor tele-video consultation facilities have been launched as an alternativeto reduce hospital visits.

Challenges and Way Forward

• The scope of the e-governance projects expanded at an unexpected speed during Covid-19, by adding many new features and innovativee-infrastructure.
• The population of India now connected with e-governance can be considered as one of the largestdatabases in the world having personal information of people.
• The important challenge ahead of the sudden surgeof the ambit of e-governance in the post-Covid scenario is assuring a secure, effective, reliable, transparent system that is reconciled with the basic rights and values guaranteed in the Constitution of India.
• Another challenge in e-germane is to adopt new methods to decrease the digital divide and to promote inclusive e-governance for achieving the promise, ‘to leave nobody behind’.

In the post-Covid scenario, the government is required to develop effective e-governance through:

• Interoperability of e-governance
• Infrastructure between intergovernmental departments and agencies
• Developing inclusive e-governance structure to make sure that there is no one is left out
• Legislating effective data protection
• Law and administrative regulations
• Enhancing data security levels to avoid data leakage, misuse, etc.
• Reducing digital divide by creating an inclusive digital ecosystem, e-literacy for inclusiveness, improving accessibility for higher uptake
• Mandatory sector-specific service focus to attain SDO goals
• Embracing New Age Technologies (NAT) for improved service delivery and focusing on integrated service delivery

Maintaining consistency is one of the biggest issues faced by IAS Aspirants. Streak’s initiative is to help Aspirants in their day-to-day preparation. You can follow the monthly, weekly, and daily timetables and continue this streak until you find yourself on the final list.

Please register for Streak Initiative (free) through this link:- https://www.civilsdaily.com/course/streak-daily-initiative/

You will get following study material:-

1. Questions (PDF).
2. RSTV/Yojana monthly notes (PDF).
3. Burning issue (PDF).
4. Subject specific (PDF).
5. Mentor’s phone call for support & encouragement.

_____________________________________________

Daily Study Plan with Answer Writing Challenge || STREAK FREE INITIATIVE FOR UPSC IAS – by Ravi Ranjan

UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Based Most Probable Questions on International Relations – by Sukanya Rana

Q1) Consider the following statements:

1. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a multilateral treaty that bans all nuclear tests, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments.

2. India has signed but not ratified the treaty.

Select correct option:

a) 1 only

b) 2 only

c) 1 and 2

d) None

Q2) Consider the following statements:

1. Fatf maintains a list of countries which are low tax jurisdictions or tax shelters.

2. Membership to Fatf and oecd are almost similar.

Select incorrect option:

a) 1 only

b) 2 only

c) 1 and 2

d) None

Q3) Consider the following statements:

1. ICJ is the only international court that adjudicates general disputes between countries, with its rulings and opinions serving as primary sources of international law.

2. ICC is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.

Select incorrect option:

a) 1 only

b) 2 only

c) 1 and 2

d) None

Q4) Which of the following is not correctly matched?

a) Strait of Hormuz: Oman and Iran

b) Bab – el-Mandeb: Arabian sea and red sea

c) Strait of Magellan : Pacific and atlantic ocean

d) Dardanelles Strait connecting the Black sea and Aegean Sea

Q5) Consider the following statements on Mekong ganga cooperation:

1. The Mekong river runs through China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

2. Mekong ganga cooperation was formed in 2010.

3. Members include India, China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

Select correct statements:

a) 1 only

b) 1 and 2

c) 1 and 3

d) All

15th Sept 2021

 

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• The first tangible evidence of Buddhism is represented by the rock and pillar edicts of Asoka detailing wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history.
• These edicts mention that Buddhism reached as far as the Mediterranean, and many Buddhist monuments were created in a wide area. Buddhism and the Buddha are mentioned, the edicts focus on social and moral precepts rather than religious practices or the philosophical dimension of Buddhism.
• In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to himself as “Beloved of the Gods” and “King Priya-darshi.”
• The inscriptions found in the eastern part of India were written in the Magadhi language, using the Brahmi script. In the western part of India, the language used is closer to Sanskrit, using the Kharoshthi script,one extract of Edict 13 in the Greek language, and one bilingual edict written in Greek and Aramaic.
• These edicts were decoded by British archeologist and historian James Prinsep.
• Major themes are Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism, the description of his efforts to spread Buddhism, his moral and religious precepts, and his social and animal welfare program.

Pillers:

• Ashoka pillars, (usually made of chunar sandstone), as a symbol of the state, assumed a great significance in the entire Mauryan Empire.
• Objective: The main objective was to disseminate the Buddhist ideology and court orders in the entire Mauryan empire.
• Language: While most Ashoka pillar edicts were in Pali and Prakrit language, few were written in Greek or Aramaic language also.
• Architecture: Mauryan pillars mainly comprise of four parts:
• Shaft: A long shaft formed the base and was made up of a single piece of stone or monolith.
• Capital: On top of shaft lay the capital, which was either lotus-shaped or bell-shaped.
• Abacus: Above the capital, there was a circular or rectangular base known as the abacus.
• Capital Figure: All the capital figures (usually animals like a bull, lion, elephant, etc) are vigorous and carved standing on a square or circular abacus.

Major Rock Edicts

• Major Rock Edict I

Prohibits animal slaughter. Bans festive gatherings and killings of animals. Only two peacocks and one deer were killed in Asoka’s kitchen. He wished to discontinue this practice of killing two peacocks and one deer as well.

• Major Rock Edict II

Provides for care for man and animals, describes about Chola, Pandyas , Satyapura and Keralputra Kingdoms of South India

• Major Rock Edict III

Generosity to Brahmans. Issued after 12 years of Asoka’s coronation. It says that the Yuktas (subordinate officers and Pradesikas (district Heads) along with Rajukas (Rural officers ) shall go to the all areas of kingdom every five years and spread the Dhamma Policy of Asoka.

• Major Rock Edict IV

Dhammaghosa is ideal to the mankind and not the Bherighosa. Impact of Dhamma on society.

• Major Rock Edict V

Concerns about the policy towards slaves. He mentions in this rock edict ” Every Human is my child…”Appointment of Dhammamahamatras is mentioned in this edict.

• Major Rock Edict VI

Describes King’s desire to get informed about the conditions of the people constantly. Talks about welfare measures.

• Major Rock Edict VII

Requests tolerance for all religions

• Major Rock Edict VIII

Describes Asoka’s first Dhamma Yatra to Bodhgaya & Bodhi Tree.

• Major Rock Edict IX

Condemns popular ceremonies. Stress in ceremonies of Dhamma.

• Major Rock Edict X

Condemns the desire for fame and glory. Stresses on popularity of Dhamma.

• Major Rock Edict XI

Elaborates Dhamma

• Major Rock Edict XII

Directed and determined request for tolerance among different religious sects.

• Major Rock Edict XIII

Asoka’s victory over Kalinga . Victory of Asoka’s Dhamma over Greek Kings, Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, Alexander and Cholas, Pandyas etc. This is the Largest Edict. It mentions Kamboj, nabhaks, Bhoja, Andhra etc.

• Major Rock Edict XIV

Describes engraving of inscriptions in different parts of country.

Ashoka’s 7 pillar edicts: 

These were found at Topra (Delhi), Meerut, Kausambhi, Rampurva, Champaran, Mehrauli:

• Pillar Edict I: Asoka’s principle of protection to people.
  • Pillar Edict II: Defines Dhamma as the minimum of sins, many virtues, compassion, liberality, truthfulness, and purity.
  • Pillar Edict III: Abolishes sins of harshness, cruelty, anger, pride, etc.
  • Pillar Edict IV: Deals with duties of Rajukas.
  • Pillar Edict V: List of animals and birds which should not be killed on some days and another list of animals which have not to be killed at all.
  • Pillar Edict VI: Dhamma policy
  • Pillar Edict VII: Works done by Asoka for Dhamma policy.

• Minor Pillar Inscriptions
  • Rummindei Pillar Inscription: Asokha’s visit to Lumbini & exemption of Lumbini from tax.
  • Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription, Nepal: It mentions that Asoka increased the height of stupa of Buddha Konakamana to its double size.

• Major Pillar Inscriptions
  • Sarnath Lion Capital: Near Varanasi was built by Ashoka in commemoration of Dhammachakrapravartana or the first sermon of Buddha.
  • Vaishali Pillar, Bihar, single lion, with no inscription.
  • Sankissa Pillar, Uttar Pradesh
  • Lauriya-Nandangarth, Champaran, Bihar.
  • Lauriya-Araraj, Champaran, Bihar
  • Allahabad pillar, Uttar Pradesh.

---

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IMD had predicted normal monsoon for 2021. However, initial estimates show that some states may not get enough rain.

In this article, we shall learn how this will impact economic growth, especially when other sectors are still reeling under Covid-19 impact.

What is Monsoon?

• Monsoon is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation.
• It is now being used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal oscillation of the Intertropical Convergence Zone between its limits to the north and south of the equator.
• Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase.
• The term is also sometimes used to describe locally heavy but short-term rains.

What defines a Normal Monsoon?

The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) calls a monsoon season:

• ‘Normal’ when the total amount of rainfall in the country between June and September is within 10 per cent (plus or minus) of the average rain over a long period.
• ‘Deficit rainfall’ is when it drops below the margin of 10 per cent of the average.
• ‘Excess rainfall’ is when it exceeds the average by more than 10 per cent.

What is the LPA method?

• The IMD uses long period average (LPA) method to forecast the monsoon.
• LPA represents the average annual rainfall received by India during the southwest monsoon over the five decades from 1961 to 2010.

Why is it so important to have Normal Monsoon?

A good monsoon usually brings renewal and recovery, especially when times are grim. The right amount of rainfall brings the promise of a bumper harvest, boosting rural incomes and demand, driving an essential economic cycle.

(1) Crop success

• The monsoon is critical for agriculture in the country since nearly 60% of India’s net arable land lacks irrigation.
• The monsoon delivers about 70% of India’s annual rainfall and determines the yield of several grains and pulses, including rice, wheat, and sugarcane.
• India is the world’s biggest producer of sugar, cotton and pulses, and the second-biggest producer of wheat and rice. 

(2) Food inflation

• More importantly, higher agriculture yield would mean lower pressure on food prices and the overall retail inflation.
• A normal south-west monsoon should help to contain food price pressures, especially in cereals and pulses.
• It is also crucial to keep up the rural demand.

(3) Drinking water

• The rains also replenish nearly 100 large reservoirs critical for drinking water and power generation across the country.
• In the event of deficient rains, cities such as Chennai, Mumbai, and Hyderabad will be forced to cut water supplies.

(4) Demand spur in the economy

• Most major sectors of the economy like to base their sales and distribution activities on the monsoon’s behavior.
• For example, if the monsoon fails, lower production of foodgrain would mean lower demand for diesel to transport goods.
• A company involved in sales and distribution of automotive fuels would like to cut down production before the demand plummets.
• From share markets and betting houses to the collections at temples and sales of vegetables, the monsoon affects everything.

(5) Hydro Energy

• A normal monsoon will also lead to reservoirs across India, which are responsible for water supply in cities, filling up.
• Thus it  will also lead to an increase in production of hydro power which is a cleaner form of energy.

Importance of Monsoon for the Agriculture

• When the first wave of Covid-19 cases ravaged the economy in 2020, it was the agriculture sector, powered by an above-average monsoon, that saved the economy and millions who depend on agriculture, both directly and indirectly.
• Nearly half of India’s farmland has no irrigation and is dependent on monsoon rains, which account for 70-90 per cent of annual rainfall.
• Farming accounts for almost 15 per cent of India’s GDP and employs nearly 42.6 per cent of the workforce.
• While the share of Indians employed in the sector is declining, it remains a critical sector.

Public sentiments associated

• Normal monsoon will also improve the sentiment in rural India which has witnessed many coronavirus cases and deaths.
• It will lead to an increase in income of farmers and provide a boost to rural demand which has been facing pressure in the second wave.

Significance for post COVID recovery

• A normal monsoon would ensure that inflation remains in the band of 4%-6% as targeted by the Reserve Bank of India.
• Low inflation will help the Reserve Bank of India to continue with its stance of keeping interest rates low. Generally, central banks resort to an increase in interest rates to tackle high inflation.
• Low rate scenario is required at a time when Indian economy is battling from the economic fallout of the pandemic.

Issues in Monsoon Prediction

• One may complain about the “unreliability and uncertainty of rainfall prediction in India.
• In recent times, the unpredictability of monsoons has increased significantly with the impact of global warming that has resulted in climate change all over the world.
• For climate scientists, determining the location, extent, and intensity of the ITCZ is the biggest challenge and in recent times it has become more difficult due to climate change and other factors like El Nino, a global climate cycle that disrupts the path of trade winds.

Maintaining consistency is one of the biggest issues faced by IAS Aspirants. Streak’s initiative is to help Aspirants in their day-to-day preparation. You can follow the monthly, weekly, and daily timetables and continue this streak until you find yourself on the final list.

Please register for Streak Initiative (free) through this link:- https://www.civilsdaily.com/course/streak-daily-initiative/

You will get following study material:-

1. Questions (PDF).
2. RSTV/Yojana monthly notes (PDF).
3. Burning issue (PDF).
4. Subject specific (PDF).
5. Mentor’s phone call for support & encouragement.

_____________________________________________

Daily Study Plan with Answer Writing Challenge || STREAK FREE INITIATIVE FOR UPSC IAS – by Ravi Ranjan

UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Based Most Probable Questions on International Relations – by Sukanya Rana

Q1) Which of the following statements is/are correct about UNSC?

1. Asia-Pacific regional group holds three non-permanent seats and Africa holds two non-permanent seats.

2. The president of UNSC is a post held on a monthly rotation basis.

Select the correct option:

a. Only 1

b. Only 2

c. Both

d. None

Q2) Consider the following statements:

1. HDI indicates percentage loss in HDI due to inequality.

2. Gender Development Index is the measurement of gender inequality using dimensions like reproductive health, empowerment and participation in the labour market.

Which are correct statements:

a. 1 only

b. 2 only

c. 1 and 2

d. None

Q3) Consider the following statements:

1. The first summit of G20 was held in 2008 in Russia.

2. Canada, France, Germany, Italy, South Korea, UK and US are member states of G7.

Which are incorrect statements:

a. 1 only

b. 2 only

c. 1 and 2

d. None

Q4) Which countries are part of the grouping Mercosur?

1. Argentina

2. Uruguay

3. Paraguay 

4. Venezuela 

Select the correct options:

a. 1, 2 and 3

b. 2, 3 and 4

c. 1 and 3

d. All

Q5) Consider the following statements:

1. IAEA is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any military purpose.

2. North Korea and Iran have withdrawn their membership from IAEA.

 Which are correct statements:

a. 1 only

b. 2 only

c. 1 and 2

d. None

Daily Dose: Complete Snapshots of Everyday News – by Shweta Mishra

14th Sept 2021

 

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Indian Festivals

Kumbha Mela	Held at all 4 places every 3 years by rotation (Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, Ujjain) Associated rivers : Ganga at Haridwar, the Sangam of the Ganga, Yamuna and the mythical Saraswati at Allahabad,  Godawari at Nashik, and Shipra at Ujjain Ardha Kumbh Mela  : Haridwar and Prayag every 6 years Purna Kumbh Mela  : Prayag every 12 years Maha Kumbh Mela  : Prayag every 144 years
Holi	last full moon day of  Phalguna
Maha Shivaratri	13th night in Krishna Paksha of Phalguna
Navaratri	9 forms of Shakti are worshipped on 9 nights
Vinayaga Chaturthi	On occasion of birth of Ganesha
Vasant Panchami	Worshiping Saraswati –  the goddess of knowledge, music and art Children are taught to write their first words; Brahmins are fed ; ancestral worship is performed; the god of love- Kamadeva is worshipped People usually wear yellow garments
Ramzan	Muslims refrain from eating, drinking and sexual relations from dawn until sunset Intended to teach Muslims about patience, humility & spirituality
Guru Purnima	Buddhists in the honour of Lord Buddha who gave his first sermon on this day at Sarnath Hindus on this day offer Puja or pay respect to their Guru
Buddha Poornima	Birth anniversary of Lord Buddha
Christmas	Commemorate the birth of Jesus
Easter	Oldest and holiest Christian festival – the day when Jesus Christ was crucified On this day Jesus Christ rose from the dead and ascended into heaven
Thai Pongal	Harvest festival celebrated in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry and Sri Lanka To thank the Sun God and farmstead livestock Boiling of milk in clay pot symbolize material abundance for household
Muharram	Celebrated on the 1st  month of the Islamic calendar unlawful to fight during this month
Dree Festival	an agricultural rite, which is observed by Apatanis in Arunachal Pradesh involves a sacrifice of fowls, eggs and animals to the sun & moon god to appease these Gods to avoid feminine

Indian Dances

Indian Folk Music

• Baul : It is a type of Bengali music and a religious sect. The lyrics carry influence from Bhakti movement as well as Sufi movement.
• Wanawan : Folk music from Kashmir which is sung during wedding ceremonies.
• Padwani : This music is based on Mahabharata and uses both singing and playing instruments.
• Alha : Song is from Madhya Pradesh and is a heroic ballad song.
• Paani hari : Song is from the state of Rajasthan and is thematically related to water. Songs are generally about women fetching water from nearby well.
• Ovi : Maharashtra and Goan women sing such songs during leisure time.
• Pai song : Songs are mostly from Madhya Pradesh sung during festivals.
• Lavani : Popular folk song from Maharashtra. Music has a powerful rhythm and beats and is suitable for dancing.
• Maand : Developed in the royal circles
• Dandiya raas : Performed in Gujarat and is associated with Holi and Lila of Krishna and Radha at Vrindavan
• Powada : Folk type emerging from Maharashtra
• Khongjom Parva : Important folk music from the state of Manipur.
• Bhagwati : Popular amongst masses of Karnataka and Maharashtra. Musically they are close to ghazals and are sung on a slower pitch.

Classical Dances

The classical dance forms recognised by the Sangeet Natak Akademi and the Ministry of Culture are

• Bharatanatyam, from Tamil Nadu
• Kathak, from Uttar Pradesh and western India
• Kathakali, from Kerala
• Kuchipudi, from Andhra Pradesh
• Odissi, from Odisha
• Sattriya, from Assam
• Manipuri, from Manipur
• Mohiniyattam, from Kerala

Indian Music

The two main traditions of classical music in India are Carnatic music and Hindustani Music. Carnatic Music is found predominantly in the peninsular regions and Hindustani music are found in the northern and central regions.

Hindustani Music

Hindustani music was not only influenced by ancient Hindu musical traditions but also enriched by the Persian performance practices of the Mughals.

Dhrupad is an old style of Hindustani singing, traditionally performed by male singers. The great Indian musician Tansen sang in the Dhrupad style. Dhrupad was the main form of northern Indian classical music but has now given way to Khyal.

Khyal is a form of vocal music in Hindustani music. It was adopted from medieval Persian music It is special as it is based on improvising and expressing emotion.

Another vocal form Tarana are medium to fast-paced songs that are usually performed towards the end of the concert. They consist of a few lines of poetry with rhythmic syllables.

Tappa is a form of Indian semi-classical vocal music. It originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and was developed as a form of classical music by Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori.

Thumri is a semi-classical vocal form said to have begun in Uttar Pradesh. The lyrics are typically in Brij Bhasha and are usually romantic.

Ghazal is an originally Persian form of Poetry. In India, Ghazal became the most common form of poetry in the  Urdu language.

Although Hindustani music clearly is focused on vocal performance, recently instrumental Hindustani music is very popular than vocal music especially outside South Asia.

Carnatic Music

Carnatic music is a system of music commonly associated with the southern part of  India especially. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Carnatic music is completely melodic with improvised variations. Purandara Dasa is credited with having founded today’s Carnatic music. He is credited with having elevated Carnatic music from religious and devotional music into the realm of performing art. Carnatic music is usually performed by a small ensemble of musicians consist ing of a principal performer (vocalist ) a violin, mridanga ,and a tamburu. Today Carnatic music is presented by musicians in concerts or recordings either vocally or through instruments.

Important Indian Crafts

ZARI

•  Zari is an even thread traditionally made offine gold or silver used in traditional Indian, Pakistani and Persian garments and curtains, etc. Four types of zari are produced in India, namely, real zari, semi real zari, imitation zari and plastic zari.
•  Real zari is made of silver and electroplated with gold, whereas semi real zari has a composition of copper coated with silver and gold electroplating. Surat is the home of zari industry in India. Other clusters producing zari are Bareilly, Varanasi, Agra, Hyderabad, Lucknow, Vadodara, Lathur, Jaipur, Barmer, etc.

Coir Twisting

•  Coir is a natural, eco-friendly, waterproof and exceptionally tensile fibre extracted from the nuts of coconut palms.
•  It is found in abundance and is used for manufacturing a wide range of eco-friendly toys, mats, brushes, mattresses, wall hangings, key rings, pen stands and other home decoratives.
•  This craft is primarily produced in Odisha (Sakhigopal, Puri, Pipli, Bhubaneswar, Batamangala and Kendrapara). It is also produced in Kerala (Ernakulam).

Folk Painting

•  Indian folk paintings are pictorial expressions of village painters which are marked by the subjects chosen from epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata, Indian Puranas as well as daily events. There are several vibrant folk painting types in India in different stages.
•  The Gond tribe of Madhya Pradesh is engaged in floor and wall painting. Warli is a vivid expression of daily and social events of Warli tribe in Maharashtra. Rajasthan is famous for Phad painting done on cloth.
•  Other types of paintings arc Pilhora painting in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, Madhubani painting of Bihar, Chitrakar painting of West Bengal, Patachitras in Odisha, and Kalamkar Srikalahasti, Andhra Pradesh.

Metal Ware

•  The metal crafts of India display intricate craftsmanship and fine art in shaping gold, silver, brass, copper into exquisitely designed images, idols, jewellery, and utility items. Different categories of handicrafts that come under metal ware are brass metalware of Moradabad, metal bidri work and bell metal in Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and so on.
•  India is the largest brassware producer in the world. Major clusters of brassware are Moradabad, Murshidabad, Madurai, Salem, Cuttack and Haryana.
•  Bidriware is a metal handicraft that originatedinBidar, Karnataka. The term
  ‘Bidriware’ originates from the township of Bidar, which is still the main centre of the unique metalware. It is a form of encrusted metalware, where one metal is inlaid on to another.
•  Bidri products include a diverse range of objects including hukka bases, bowls, boxes, candle stands, trays, jewellery and buttons. It travelled from Iran to Ajmer in Rajasthan in the 13th century AD, and from there to Bijapur and flourished during the reign of the Deccan Sultanate.Itis also practised in Aurangabad district in the state of Maharashtra and Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh. The basic metal used for Bidri is the alloy of zinc and copper.

Filigree and Silverware

•  Filigree is an extremely ancient technique dating back to 4000 years ago. Filigree work is performed on silver and involves significant precision and technicality. Two major clusters of silver filigree in India are Karimnagar in Andhra Pradesh and Cuttack in Odisha.
•  The practice in Karimnagar is about two centuries old. However, it is also practised in Warangal in Andhra Pradesh. Key raw materials used are silver wire, tracing sheet, copper, charcoal, dilute sulphuric acid.

Textile Hand Embroidery

•  In textile hand embroidery, embellishment is made on fabric with threads and sometimes with other materials.
•  There are many popular embroidery clusters such as chikankari and zardozi of Lucknow, katha of Bengal pulkari of Punjab. kutchi embroidery of Gujarat and kashidakari of Kashmir. Zardozi has been traditionally prevalent in Lucknow and the six surrounding districts ofBarabanki, Unnao, Sitapur, Rae Bareli, Hardoi and Amethi.

Textile Hand Printing

•  Hand-printed textiles is a craft in which cloth is dyed with hand or printed using shapes. Various types of hand printing practiced in India are block printing, batik, kalamkari (hand printing by pen) and bandhani (tie and die).
•  Some of the important centres of this craft are in Hyderabad, Machalipattnam, Varanasi, Farrukabad, Bagh, Behrongarh, Indore, Mandsar, Burhanpur, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Kutch, Bagru, Chittroli, Sanganer, Jaipur and Jodhpur.

Indian Paintings

Prehistoric Cave Paintings

• Painted rock shelters by prehistoric cave dwellers
• Notable example →  Bhimbetka caves in the Kaimur Range, MP (biggest prehistoric art depositoryin India)

Genres of Indian Painting

• Indian paintings can be broadly classified as murals and miniatures.
• Murals are large works executed on the walls of solid structures directly, as in the Ajanta Caves & Kailash temple (Ellora)
• Miniature paintings are executed on a very small scale for books or albums on perishable material such as paper and cloth.

Mural Paintings

• Mural is the only form of painting that is truly three-dimensional, since it modifies and partakes of a given space.
• Mural paintings are applied on dry wall with the major use of egg, yolk, oil, etc.

• Notable examples → Ajanta Caves, Bagh Caves, Sittanavasal Caves, Armamalai Cave (Tamil Nadu), Kailasa temple (Ellora Caves)
• Murals from this period depict mainly religious themes of Buddhist, Jain and Hindu

Ajanta Murals Paintings

• Depict a large number of incidents from the life of the Buddha (Jataka Tales)
• Exclusively Buddhist, excepting decorative patterns on the ceilings and the pillars.

Ellora Murals Paintings

• Painted in rectangular panels with thick borders with following
• Prominent features →  Sharp twist of the head + painted angular bents of the arms + sharp projected nose + long drawn open eyes + concave curve of the close limbs

Badami Mural Paintings

• A cave site in Karnataka, patronized by chalukya king, Manglesha
• Depictions in the caves show Vaishnava affiliation, Therefore, the cave is popularly known as Vishnu cave.

Murals under the Pallava, Pandava and Cholas

• Paintings at the Kanchipuram temple were patronised by Pallava king, Rajsimha
• Paintings at Tirumalaipuram caves & Jaina caves at Sittanvasal were patronised by Padayas
• Paintings at Nartamalai & Brihadeswara temple were patronized by Cholas

Vijayanagara murals (13^th century)

• Paintings at Virupaksha temple (Hamphi) & Lepakshi temple (Andhra Pradesh) were patronised by Vijayanagara Kings

Miniature Paintings

• The Palas of Bengal were the pioneers of miniature painting in India.
• The art of miniature painting reached its glory during the Mughal period.

The Pala School (11^th – 12^th century)

• Exist in the form of illustrations to the religious texts on Buddhism executed under the Palas of the eastern India & the Jain texts executed in western India
• The Buddhist monasteries of Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramsila & Somarupa were great centers of Buddhist learning and art.
• A large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to the Buddhist themes were written, illustrated with the images of Buddhist deities at these centers

• The Pala painting is characterized by sinuous line and subdued tones of colour

Western Indian School of Painting

• Also called Jaina Painting, largely devoted to the illustration of Jaina religious texts of the 12th–16th century
• Notable sites → Gujrat, Uttar Pradesh, Central India & Orissa
• Characterized by simple, bright colours, highly conventionalized figures, and wiry, angular drawing

Mughal Paintings (16^th – 19^th century)

• Mainly confined to miniature illustrations on the books or as single works to be kept in an album
• Mughal paintings were a unique blend of Indian, Persian (Safavi) and Islamic styles
• Marked by supple naturalism →  Primarily aristocratic and secular
• Tried to paint the classical ragas and Seasons or baramasa
• Tuti-nama – first art work of the Mughal School.
• Akbar’s reign (1556–1605) ushered a new era in Indian miniature painting.
• At Zenith under Jahangir who himself was a famous painter
• Jahangir encouraged artists to paint portraits and durbar scenes.
• Shah Jahan (1627–1658) continued the patronage of painting.
• Aurangzeb had no taste for fine arts.

• Most significant are Hamza Nama, Razm-Nama or “The Book of War”, Akbar Nama
• Finest example of this school includes Hamzanama series, started in 1567 & completed in 1582
• Hamzanama →  Stories of Amir Hamza, illustrated by Mir Sayyid Ali
• 1200 paintings on themes of Changeznama, Zafarnama & Ramayana
• The paintings of the Hamzanama are of large size, 20” x 27″ and were painted on cloth.
• They are in the Persian safavi style with dominating colours being red, blue and green
• Indian tones appear in later work, when Indian artists were employed

Rajput Painting (16^th – 19^th century)

• the art of the independent Hindu feudal states in India
• Unlike Mughal paintings which were contemporary in style, Rajput paintings were traditional & romantic
• Rajput painting is further divided into Rajasthani painting and Pahari painting (art of the Himalayan kingdoms)

Central Indian and Rajasthani Schools (17^th – 19^th Century)

• Deeply rooted in the Indian traditions, taking inspiration from Indian epics, Puranas, love poems & Indian folk-lore
• Mughal artists of inferior merit who were no longer required by the Mughal Emperors, migrated to Rajasthan

Malwa paintings (17^th century)

• Centred largely in Malwa and Bundelkhand (MP); sometimes referred as Central Indian painting due to its geographical distribution.

• This school’s most appealing features is its primitive charm & a simple childlike vision

Kishangarh paintings (18^th century)

• Distinguished by its individualistic facial type and its religious intensity
• Developed under the patronage of Raja Savant Singh (1748-1757 AD) by master artist Nihal Chand

Mewar (Udaipur) Paintings (17^th – 18^th century)

• Characterized by bold bright contrasting colours and direct emotional appeal
• The earliest-dated examples come from Ragmala (musical modes) series painted in 1605

• Reflects portraiture & life of the ruler, along with religious themes

Marwar (Jodhpur) Paintings

• Executed in a primitive and vigorous folk style
• Completely uninfluenced by the Mughal style.
• Portrays court scenes, series of Ragamala & Baramasa

Bundi paintings (Late 17^th century)

• Very close to the Mewar style, but the former excels the latter in quality
• Prominent features → Rich and glowing colours, the rising sun in golden colour, crimson-red horizon, border in brilliant red colour (in Rasikpriya series)
• Notable examples → Bhairavi Ragini (Allahabad Museum), illustrated manuscript of the Bhagawata Purana (Kota Museum) & a series of the Rasikapriya (National Museum, Delhi)

Kota paintings (18^th – 19^th century)

• Very similar to Bundi style of paintings
• Themes of tiger and bear hunt were popular
• Most of the space in painting is occupied by the hilly jungle

The Pahari Schools (17^th – 19^th Century)

Comprises the present State of Himachal Pradesh, some adjoining areas of the Punjab, the area of Jammu, & Garhwal in Uttarakhand

Basohli Paintings (17^th – 18^th century)

• known for its bold vitality of colour, lines & red borders
• Emotional scenes from a text called “Rasamanjari” →  Krishna legend
• Favoured oblong format, with the picture space usually delineated by architectural detail, which often breaks into the characteristic red borders
• Stylized facial type, shown in profile, is dominated by the large, intense eyes

Guler painting (Jammu)

• Mainly consisting of portraits of Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota (Jammu) designed by Nainsukh
• Colours used are soft and cool unlike Basohli school

• Style appears to have been inspired by the naturalistic style of the Mughal painting

Kangra painting (Late 18^th century)

• The Kangra style is developed out of the Guler style & possesses its main characteristics, like the delicacy of drawing & naturalism
• The Kangra style continued to flourish at various places namely Kangra, GuIer, Basohli, Chamba, Jammu, Nurpur and Garhwal etc.
• However, Named as Kangra style as they are identical in style to the portraits of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra
• In these paintings, the faces of women in profile have the nose almost in line with the forehead, the eyes are long & narrow, & chin is sharp.

• There is, however, no modelling of figures and hair is treated as a flat mass.
• Paintings of the Kangra style are attributed mainly to the Nainsukh family.

Kullu – Mandi painting

• A folk style of painting in the Kulu-Mandi area, mainly inspired by the local tradition
• The style is marked by bold drawing and the use of dark and dull colours

Independent Paintings

Kalighat Paintings (Kolkata – 19^th century)

• Patua painters from rural Bengal came and settled in Kalighat to make images of gods and goddesses in the early 19^th century
• They evolved a quick method of painting on mill-made paper
• Used brush and ink from the lampblack

Madhubani Paintings (Mithila – Bihar)

• Colorful auspicious images on the interior walls of homes on the occasion of rituals & festivity → painted by women
• This ancient tradition, especially elaborated for marriages, continues today.
• Used to paint the walls of room, known as KOHBAR GHAR in which the newly wedded couple meets for the first time
• Very conceptual, first, the painter thinks & then “draws her thought”

Phad paintings (Bhilwada, Rajasthan)

• Phad is a painted scroll, which depicts stories of epic dimensions about local deities and legendary heroes.
• Bhopas (local priests) carry these scrolls on their shoulders from village to village for a performance.

• Represents the moving shrine of the deity and is an object of worship
• Most popular & largest Phad – local deities Devnarayanji and Pabuji

Kalamkari Paintings (Andhra Pradesh)

• Literal meaning is painting done by kalam (pen) , Mainly in Andhra Pradesh (developed under Vijaynagar rulers)
• Stories from the epics Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Puranas are painted as continuous narratives
• Mainly to decorate temple interiors with painted cloth panels scene after scene; Every scene is surrounded by floral decorative patterns
  

Warli painting

• Practiced in tribal regions of Maharashtra with subjects, predominantly religious
• decorative paintings on floors & walls of ‘gond’ and ‘kol’ tribes homes and places of worship
• made in a geometric patterns like squares, triangles, and circles
• Unlike other tribal art forms, Warli paintings do not employ religious iconography and is a more secular art form.

Handicrafts

Kashmir	Embroidered shawls, carpets, namdar silk and walnut wood furniture
Rajasthan	precious stone and jems + tie & dye (Bandhani) fabric + minakari work
Andhra Pradesh	Bidri work and Pochampad saris
Tamil Nadu	bronze sculpture and Kajeevaram silk saris
Mysore	silk, sandalwood items
Kerala	ivory carvings and rosewood furniture
Assam	cane furniture
Bengal	Bankura terracotta modelling and handloom items
Benaras	Brocade & silk saris
Madhya Pradesh	Chanderi and kosa silk
Lucknow	chikan work  (Zardozi Embroidery – Muslims in Lucknow)
Punjab	Phulkari embroidery
Bengal	Kantha embroidery
Orissa	Patola embroidery
Budhhists	Thangka painting

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UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Based Most Probable Questions on International Relations – by Sukanya Rana

Q1) Which of the following are military bases of India outside?

1. Tajikistan
2. Oman
3. Djibouti
4. Madagascar

Select the correct option:

a) 1 and 2 only

b) 1, 2 and 3

c) 2, 3 and 4

d) 1, 2 and 4

Q2) Which of the following is part of IORA?

1. Comoros
2. UAE
3. Papua New Guinea
4. Kenya
5. Seychelles

Options:

a) 1, 2, 3, 5

b) 1, 3, 5

c) 1, 2, 4, 5

d) All

Q3) Consider the statements on Indian Ocean Commission:

1. Member states include Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mayotte, Reunion and seychelles.
2. The intergovernmental organization is aimed at social development of the region with help of international organizations like European union.

Correct statement:

a) 1 only

b) 2 only

c) 1 and 2

d) none

Q4) From north to south, which islands are arranged right from the Indian ocean?

a) Maldives – Seychelles – Mauritius – Reunion

b) Maldives – Seychelles – Reunion – Mauritius

c) Maldives – Mauritius – Seychelles – Reunion

d) Maldives – Mauritius – Reunion – Seychelles

Q5) Consider the following statements on regional groups:

1. Both SAARC and BIMSTEC are 7 member groups in south asia.
2. Saarc was formed in 1985 whereas bimstec was formed in 1997.
3. The first summit of SAARC was held in Nepal and that of BIMSTEC was in bangkok.

Select correct option:

a) 1 and 2 only

b) 1, 2 and 3

c) 2 and 3

d) None of the above

UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Most Probable Questions on Polity – by Santosh Gupta

Q1) Consider the following statements 

1. The conditions of service and tenure of office of the election commissioners and the regional commissioners shall be determined by the president. 
2. They hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the age of 60 years, whichever is earlier. 
3. The Constitution has debarred the retiring election commissioners from any further appointment by the government.

 Which of the statements given above is/are incorrect?

a. 1 and 2 

b. 2 and 3

c. 1 and 3 

d. All of them 

Q2) Consider the following statements 

1. The President can remove the chairman or any other member of UPSC on grounds of misbehavior after referring the matter to the Supreme Court. 
2. The term misbehavior, however, has not been defined in the Constitution and has been left to the discretion of the President. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. 1 only

b. 2 only

c. Both 1 and 2 

d. None of them

Q3) Consider the following statements about Finance Commission 

1. It is a permanent quasi judicial body constituted by the president of India
2. The members of the Finance Commission are not eligible for reappointment. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. 1 only

b. 2 only

c. Both  1 AND 2 

d. None of them

Q4)  Which of the following statements regarding CAG of India is/are correct? 

1. The CAG is appointed by the president of India by a warrant under his hand and seal. 
2. He holds office for a period of six years or upto the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. 
3. He holds office during the pleasure of the president as he is appointed by him. 

Select the correct answer using the codes given below

a. 1 and 2 only

b. 2 AND 3 only

c. 1 and 3 only

d. All of them

Q5) Consider the following statements 

1. The Attorney General (AG) is appointed by the president and he must be a person who is qualified to be appointed a judge of the Supreme Court. 
2. The term of office of the AG is 5 years. 
3. He holds office during the pleasure of the president. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a. 1 and 2 only

b. 2 and 3 only

c. 1 and 3 only

d. All of them

13th Sept 2021

 

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1.Excavations in Kutch shed light on early Harappan custom

• Archaeological excavations undertaken by a group of researchers have shed light on the custom and burial rituals that were prevalent during the early Harappan phase.
• The team which camped in Khatiya village of Kutch unearthed several skeletal remains from a cemetery-like burial site where 26 graves out of the nearly 300-odd ones were excavated.

2.Chalukyan sculpture of Siva found in Andhra Pradesh

• A rare sculpture of Lord Siva and Goddess Parvati dating back to the 7th century was discovered at a Chalukyan temple in Satyavolu village of Prakasam district, Andhra Pradesh.
• The red sandstone sculpture portrays Lord Siva as the therapeutic physician (Rudra Bhaishajana) — as described in Rigveda — in which he holds a bowl in his left hand, which contains medicine from herbs to revive the ailing horse lying at his feet.
• Siva was fairly represented in sculptural art of ancient India in many forms right from the Indus Valley civilization to the late medieval period.

Chalukyan Architecture (5th – 8th CE)

1. The temples under the Chalukyas are a good example of the Vesara style of architecture.
2. This is also called the Deccan style or Karnataka Dravida or Chalukyan style. It is a combination of Dravida and Nagara styles.
3. The building material they used was reddish-golden Sandstone found locally.
4. The temples had beautiful mural paintings also.
5. The temples are located on the banks of River Tungabhadra and Malprabaha in Karnataka and Alampur in Andhra Pradesh.
6. Aihole temples: Ladh Khan temple (Surya Temple), Durga temple, Huchimalligudi temple, Jain temple at Meguti by Ravikirti..
7. Badami temples: Virupaksha temple and Sangameshwara Temple are in Dravida style. Papanatha temple is in Nagara style.
8. Pattadakkal: is a UNESCO World Heritage site. There are ten temples here – 4 in Nagar style and 6 in Dravida style.

3.Archaeologists find pre-Columbian mass child sacrifice site in Peru

• A group of archaeologists has discovered the remains of more than 50 children who were ritually sacrificed by the pre-Columbian Chimu culture on the northern coast of what is now Peru
• The new sacrifice site was discovered in the Pamapa La Cruz area in Huanchaco, a coastal district of Trujillo, Peru’s third-largest city

Other similar places

• In Huanchaquito, the remains of over 140 children and 200 llamas slain some 550 years ago were discovered
• It reinforces the idea that Huanchaco was a place where massive sacrifices of children were made during the Chimu culture

Pre-Columbian Chimu culture

• The Chimú culture was centred on Chimor with the capital city of Chan Chan, a large adobe city in the Moche Valley of present-day Trujillo, Peru
• The culture arose about 900 AD, succeeding the Moche culture
• The Chimú people are best known for their distinctive monochromatic pottery and fine metal working of copper, gold, silver, bronze, and tumbaga (copper and gold)
• The pottery is often in the shape of a creature or has a human figure sitting or standing on a cuboid bottle

4.India gets its 37th UNESCO World Heritage Site

• India’s nomination of the “Victorian and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai” has been inscribed on UNESCO’s World Heritage list.
• The decision was taken at the 42^nd session of the World Heritage Committee of UNESCO at Manama in Bahrain today.
• This achievement is especially remarkable in the view of the successive inscription of another Indian city after Ahmedabad last year

About the Ensembles

• Together, this architectural ensemble represents the most remarkable collection of Victorian and Art Deco buildings in the world which forms the unique character of this urban setting, unparalleled in the world.
• The Ensemble consists of 94 buildings primarily of 19^th century Victorian Gothic revival and early 20^th century Art Deco style of architecture with the Oval Maidan in the centre.
• The 19^th century Victorian buildings form part of the larger Fort precinct situated to the east of the Oval Maidan.
• These public buildings include the Old Secretariat (1857-74), University Library and Convention Hall (1874-78), the Bombay High Court (1878), the Public Works Department Office (1872), Watson’s Hotel (1869), David Sasoon Library (1870), the Elphinstone College(1888), etc.
• The Art Deco styled buildings to the west of the Oval Maidan were raised in early 20^th century on the newly reclaimed lands at Marine Drive and symbolised the shift in expression to represent contemporary aspirations.

UNESCO World Heritage Properties in India

• In the past 5 years alone, India has managed to get inscribed seven of its properties/sites on the World Heritage List of UNESCO.
• India now has overall 37 World Heritage Inscriptions with 29 Cultural, 07 Natural and 01 Mixed sites.
• While India stands second largest in number after China in terms of number of World Heritage properties in ASPAC (Asia and Pacific) region, it is overall sixth in the world.

5.Thanjavur Paintings

Thanjavur Paintings

• It is a classical South Indian painting style, which was inaugurated from the town of Thanjavur and spread across the adjoining and geographically contiguous old Tamil country.
• The art form draws its immediate resources and inspiration from way back about 1600 AD, a period when the Nayakas of Thanjavur under the suzerainty of the Vijayanagara Rayas.
• It is distinguished by its famous gold coating.
• However, it can safely be surmised that Thanjavur painting, as we know it now, originated in the Maratha court of Thanjavur (1676 – 1855).
• It has been recognized as a Geographical indication by the Government of India in 2007-08.

6.Ancient rocks in India give clues to early life

Cambrian Explosion

• It refers to the sudden appearance in the fossil record of complex animals with mineralized skeletal remains 541 million years ago.
• Researchers have found the oldest clue to the mystery of animal life in ancient rocks and oils dating back at least 100 million years before the famous Cambrian explosion of animal fossils.
• Researchers at the University of California tracked molecular signs of animal life, called biomarkers, as far back as 660-635 million years ago during the Neoproterozoic era.
• In ancient rocks and oils from India, Oman, Siberia, they found a steroid compound produced only by sponges, which are among the earliest forms of animal life.

Demosponge

• A sponge is a member of the phylum Porifera.
• It is a simple marine animal with many cells, but no mouth, muscles, heart or brain.
• Demosponges is a class that contains most of the sponges.
• The sponges in this class make their skeleton from Spongin, a special protein.

7.Buddhist site museum at Lalitgiri Odisha

• One of the earliest Buddhist settlements in Odisha, Lalitgiri (Located in Cuttack district), where excavations have yielded ancient seals and inscriptions, has been converted into a museum.

Lalitgiri Museum

• Located in Cuttack district, it will be the third site museum of the Bhubaneswar circle of the ASI after Ratnagiri and Udaygiri.
• The three sites together form the Diamond Triangle of Buddhism in Odisha.
• The museum complex is spread over 4,750 sq. m. The building and auditorium are built over 1,310 sq. m. The complex has been constructed at a cost of ₹10 crore.

Historical importance of Lalitgiri

• Excavations at Lalitgiri have yielded the remains of four monasteries, showing cultural continuity from the post-Mauryan period till the 13th century CE.
• Tantric Buddhism was practiced at this site.
• The centre of attraction is a relic casket containing corporal remains found inside the Mahastupta.
• Huge sculptures of Buddha, architectural fragments of Viharas and Chaityas are arranged period-wise.
• The central gallery is designed after a Buddha Mandala with a colossal Buddha image at the centre and six Bodhisattva images surrounding it.

8.Reconstitution of Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR)

• The Government has reconstituted the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR), New Delhi for a period of three years till 2022.

Indian Council of Historical Research

• The ICHR is an autonomous body of the HRD Ministry, which had been established by an Administrative Order of the then Ministry of Education.
• The body has provided financial assistance to the historians and direction to the research scholars in their multifarious topics of historical research through established historians and scholars of the country.
• ICHR disburses funds for carrying out research to Indian as well as foreign scholars on their applications for fellowships, grants, and symposia.

9.The Indian Museum of the Earth (TIME)

• India has set in motion an ambitious plan to create Indianised version of the world-famous Smithsonian Museum, showcasing Indian subcontinent’s evolutionary history.

The Indian Museum of the Earth (TIME)

• This museum will be modelled on the American Museum of Natural History, or the Smithsonian museum in the U.S.
• The museum, which will be set up as a public-private partnership, would be located somewhere in NCR.
• Unlike static museums that are commonplace, the proposed Earth museum would be a dynamic place to encourage fossil research, student activity, public outreach besides driving policy decisions.
• The museum would be having a repository where individual collectors and researchers can submit their life long collection for safekeeping and allowing future generation researchers to study those samples.

10. Development of Rakhi Garhi Archaeological Site

Rakhi Garhi

Rakhi Garhi is being developed as one of the five Identified Iconic Archaeological Sites, informed the Minister of Culture and Tourism.
The ancient site of Rakhi-Khas and Rakhi-Shahpur are collectively known as Rakhigarhi, located on the right bank of the now dried up Palaeo-channel of Drishadvati.
It is located in the Ghaggar-Hakra river plain in the Hissar district of Haryana.
Seven mounds are located here.
The site has yielded various stages of Harappan culture and is by far one of the largest Harappan sites in India.
The site shows the sequential development of the Indus culture in the now dried up Saraswati basin.

Major findings at Rakhi Garhi

• Findings confirm both early and mature Harappan phases and include 4,600-year-old human skeletons, fortification and bricks.
  Digging so far reveals a well-planned city with 1.92 m wide roads, a bit wider than in Kalibangan.
• The pottery is similar to Kalibangan and Banawali.
  Pits surrounded by walls have been found, which are thought to be for sacrificial or some religious ceremonies.
• There are brick-lined drains to handle sewage from the houses.
  Terracotta statues, weights, bronze artefacts, comb, copper fish hooks, needles and terracotta seals have also been found.
• A bronze vessel has been found which is decorated with gold and silver.
• A granary belonging to the mature Harappan phase has been found here.
• Fire altars structures were revealed in Rakhigarhi.

Five Iconic Archaeological Sites

The government has proposed to develop five archaeological sites as “iconic sites” with onsite museums in Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Hastinapur (Uttar Pradesh), Sivsagar (Assam), Dholavira (Gujarat) and Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu) in the Union Budget 2020-21.

(1) Rakhigari (Discussed above)

(2) Hastinapur

Hastinapur in the Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh finds mention in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. One of the most significant discoveries made at this site was of the “new ceramic industry”, which was named the Painted Grey Ware, which as per the report represented the relics of the early Indo-Aryans.

(3) Sivasagar

In Sivasagar (Assam), excavations at the Karenghar (Talatalghar) complex between 2000 and 2003 led to the discovery of buried structures in the north-western and north-eastern side of the complex. Among the structural remains found at the site were ceramic assemblages including vases, vessels, dishes, and bowls, etc. Terracotta smoking pipes were also found.

(4) Dholavira

Dholavira in Gujarat is located in the Khadir island of the Rann of Kutch, and like Rakhigarhi is one of the sites where the remains of the Harappan civilization have been found. It is unique because the remains of a complete water system have been found here.

(5) Adichnallur

Adichnallur lies in the Thoothukudi district of Tamil Nadu. The urn-burial site was first brought to light during a “haphazard excavation” by a German archaeologist in 1876. Following this, an Englishman Alexander Rae excavated the site between 1889 and 1905.

11. 10th century Buddhist Monastery uncovered in Jharkhand’s Hazaribagh

Details of the excavation

• The findings were significant since the monastery is on the old route to Varanasi, 10 km from Sarnath, where the Buddha gave his first sermon.
• Archaeologists found four statues of the deity Tara in Varad Mudra and six statues of the Buddha in bhumisparsa Mudra
• So it is a significant finding as deity Tara’s statues mean this was an important centre of the Vajrayana sect of Buddhism.
• Vajrayana is a form of Tantric Buddhism, which flourished in India from the 6th to 11th century.

Inscription on Krishnadevaraya’s death discovered

• The first-ever epigraphical reference to the date of death of Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya has been discovered in the Tumakuru district of Karnataka.
• Krishna Devaraya was the emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire during 1509–1529. He was the third ruler of the Tuluva Dynasty and is considered to be its greatest ruler.
• He possessed the largest empire in India after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Krishnadevaraya earned the titles Kannada Rajya Rama Ramana (lit, “Lord of the Kannada empire”), Andhra Bhoja (lit, “Andhra Bhoja(Scholar) King”) and Mooru Rayara Ganda (lit, “King of Three Kings”).
• He became the dominant ruler of the peninsula of India by defeating the Sultans of Bijapur, Golconda, the Bahmani Sultanate and the Gajapatis of Odisha, and was one of the most powerful Hindu rulers in India.
• Indeed, when the Mughal Emperor Babur was taking stock of the potentates of north India, Krishnadevaraya was rated the most powerful and had the most extensive empire in the subcontinent.
• Portuguese travellers Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz also visited the Vijayanagara Empire during his reign.

His literary work

• The rule of Krishnadevaraya was an age of prolific literature in many languages, although it is also known as a golden age of Telugu literature.
• He was fluent in many languages like Kannada, Marathi, Sanskrit, Telugu and Tamil.
• Eight Telugu poets were regarded as eight pillars of his literary assembly and known as Ashtadiggajas. He himself composed an epic Telugu poem Amuktamalyada.
• He took the title of Abhinava-Bhoja and Sakala-Kala-Bhoja (“Bhoja of all the arts”) in honour of Parmara emperor Bhoja who was a polymath, a master of 64 arts and a military genius.

What does the inscription say?

• As per the inscription, Krishnadevaraya died on October 17, 1529, Sunday.
• Incidentally, this day was marked by a lunar eclipse.
• The inscription also registers the gift of village Honnenahalli in
• Tumakuru for conducting worship to the god Veeraprasanna Hanumantha of Tumakuru.
• The Kalahasti inscription refers to the date of Achyutaraya’s (his successor) coronation as October 21, 1529 AD.

Dickinsonia fossil discovered in Bhimbetka

Researchers have found the first-ever fossil in India of a Dickinsonia —the Earth’s ‘oldest animal’, dating back 570 million years — on the roof of what’s called the ‘Auditorium Cave’ at Bhimbetka.

Dickinsonia

• Dickinsonia is an extinct genus of basal animal that lived during the late Ediacaran period in what is now Australia, Russia and Ukraine.
• The individual Dickinsonia typically resembles a bilaterally symmetrical ribbed oval.
• Its affinities are presently unknown; its mode of growth is consistent with a stem-group bilaterian affinity, though some have suggested that it belongs to the fungi or even an “extinct kingdom”.
• The discovery of cholesterol molecules in fossils of Dickinsonia lends support to the idea that Dickinsonia was an animal.

What are the new findings?

• Like the awe-inspiring rock shelters themselves, this fossil was discovered by chance.
• Dickinsonia fossils have shown that they could exceed four feet in length but the one found in Bhimbetka is 17 inches long.
• Eleven feet above the ground, almost blending with the rock and easily mistaken by laymen for prehistoric rock art, they found imprints of the Dickinsonia.
• It is believed to be one of the key links between the early, simple organisms and the explosion of life in the Cambrian Period, about 541 million years ago.

Cambrian Explosion and Dickinsonia

• The ‘Cambrian Explosion’ is the term given to the period of time in history when complex animals and other macroscopic organisms such as molluscs, worms, arthropods and sponges began to dominate the fossil record.
• Researchers from Australian found the Dickinsonia fossil since its tissue contained molecules of cholesterol a type of fat that is the hallmark of animal life.

Sulawesi Cave Paintings

• The cave painting depicts a wild boar endemic to the Sulawesi island of Indonesia, where the painting was found.
• The central Indonesian island, which occupies an area of over 174,000 sq. km, is situated between Asia and Australia.
• It has a long history of human occupation.

Significance of the painting

• The archaeologists’ note that the dated painting of the Sulawesi warty pig seems to be the world’s oldest surviving representational image of an animal.
• The painting was made using red ochre pigment and depicts a pig with a short crest of upright hairs and a pair of horn-like facial warts in front of the eyes.
• These pigs have been hunted by humans for tens of thousands of years and are the most commonly depicted animal in the ice age rock art of the island.
• It suggests that they have long been used as food and form a “focus of creative thinking and artistic expression” for people of that time.

Annapurna Idol

• Annapurna, also spelt Annapoorna, is the goddess of food.
  This 18th-century idol, carved in the Benares was stolen from a temple of Varanasi and smuggled out around 100 years ago somewhere around 1913.
• Now is part of the University of Regina, Canada’s collection at the MacKenzie Art Gallery.
• The idol holds a bowl of kheer in one hand and a spoon in the other.

Dairy production in the Indus Valley Civilization

• By analysing residues on ancient pots, researchers show the earliest direct evidence of dairy product processing, thus throwing fresh light on the rural economy of the civilization.
• The studies were carried out on 59 shards of pottery from Kotada Bhadli, a small archaeological site in present-day Gujarat.

A significant outcome of the study

• The study has found residues in a bowl showing that either heated milk or curd could have been served.
• There are also remains of a perforated vessel, and similar vessels were used in Europe to make cheese.
• The Harappans did not just use dairy for their household.
• The large herd indicates that milk was produced in surplus so that it could be exchanged and there could have been some kind of trade between settlements.
• This could have given rise to an industrial level of dairy exploitation.

Sawantwadi Toy

• Sawantwadi toys refers to hand made works of art made of wood in Sawantwadi a town in Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra. Most of these toys are made in the village of Kolgaon in Sawantwadi taluka.
• These toys are made from the wood of the Indian Coral tree (Erythrina variegata).
• Craftsmen who make these toys belong to the Chittari community who came to Sawantwadi from Karwar and Goa.

Renati Chola Era Inscription

Who are the Renati Cholas?

• The Telugu Cholas of Renadu (also called as Renati Cholas) ruled over Renadu region, the present-day Kadapa district.
• They were originally independent, later forced to the suzerainty of the Eastern Chalukyas.
• They had the unique honour of using the Telugu language in their inscriptions belonging to the 6th and 8th centuries.
• The earliest of this family was Nandivarman (500 AD) who claimed descent from the family of Karikala and the Kasyapa gotra.
• He had three sons Simhavishnu, Sundarananda and Dhananjaya, all of whom were ruling different territories simultaneously.
• The family seems to have had its origin in Erigal in the Tunmkur district, situated in the border between Pallava and Kadamba regions.

About the inscription

• The inscription so found was engraved on a dolomite slab and shale.
  The inscription was written in archaic Telugu which is readable in 25 lines — the first side with eleven lines and the remaining on the other side.
• It was assigned to the 8th Century A.D. when the region was under the rule of Chola Maharaja of Renadu.
• The inscription seems to throw light on the record of a gift of six Marttus (a measuring unit) of land gifted to a person Sidyamayu, one of the Brahmins serving the temple at Pidukula village.
• It says the people who safeguard this inscription for future generations will acquire the status of conducting Aswamedha Yajna and those destroying it will incur sin equivalent to causing death in Varanasi.

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