Category: Strategy Sessions

“India and Central Asia are bound together by a shared history, culture, and mutual interest in peace and development.” – PM Modi

Diplomatic Engagement Between India And Central Asia

1. India and CARs share cultural and historical connections that date back to the Silk Road and Mughal era. Since gaining independence in the early 1990s, India has made it a priority to establish robust diplomatic relations with these countries.
2. Institutional frameworks like the India-Central Asia Dialogue facilitate engagement on political and strategic matters, concentrating on regional security, trade, and developmental collaboration.
3. Bilateral Visits and Agreements: High-level exchanges, such as Indian PM’s visit to all five Central Asian nations in 2015.
4. Cultural Diplomacy: The Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) actively promotes Indian culture in CARs.

Economic Relationship Between India And Central Asia

• Trade Relations: Bilateral trade accounting for merely $3 billion in 2023. Key exports include pharmaceuticals, machinery, and tea, while imports are predominantly uranium and cotton.
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• Investment Initiatives: Exemplified by ONGC Videsh’s investments in Kazakhstan’s oil fields.
• Connectivity Projects: The INSTC and the development of the Chabahar Port in Iran are pivotal in enhancing connectivity between India and Central Asia
• Energy Cooperation: Symbolized by its pursuit of energy projects such as TAPI pipeline

Strategic Relations

1. Security and Counterterrorism Cooperation: Engagement through platforms like Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) helps address security threats related to terrorism, extremism, and drug trafficking.
2. Balancing Regional Powers: India’s presence in the CARs counters the influence of China and Russia, enhancing its geopolitical standing through diversified strategies, particularly soft power initiatives such as education and cultural exchange.

Increasing Significance of Central Asian Republics in Regional and Global Geopolitics

1. Energy Security: CARs, particularly Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan, are vital for global energy security due to their rich nuclear, natural gas and oil reserves, attracting interest from regional powers like Russia, China, and Europe.
2. Geopolitical Importance in Eurasia
   1. Strategic Location at the crossroads of Eurasia, CARs are crucial for major trade and energy corridors, including the Ashgabat Agreement, Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC).
   2. Great Power Competition: The region serves as a battleground for influence among Russia, China, and the U.S. China’s BRI enhances its economic foothold, while Russia maintains security ties through the CSTO. India aims to balance this competition while preserving its strategic autonomy.
3. Security Concerns due to Afghanistan’s Stability: Central Asia’s security is closely linked to Afghanistan, which poses risks of terrorism, drug trafficking, and refugee flows. 
4. Multilateral Cooperation: SCO and Regional Stability: As a member of the SCO, India plays a role in promoting regional stability and addressing transnational issues like extremism and border security, which are critical for both India and the CARs.

Challenges In India-Central Asia Relations that need to be addressed 

1. Geographical Limitations: Central Asian Republics (CARs) are landlocked,hostile neighbors like Pakistan and China limiting India’s direct connectivity.
2. Chinese Influence: Over the past two decades, China has significantly strengthened its presence in CARs, with trade and investment flourishing, making India’s outreach more challenging.
3. The Taliban’s control over Afghanistan raises security concerns, complicating India’s efforts to secure its interests in the region and engage with CARs.
4. Low Trade Volume: Trade between India and CARs stands at around $2 billion, starkly contrasting with China’s trade, which amounts to approximately $100 billion, indicating a need for stronger commercial ties.

As per Ambassador Ashok Sajjanhar, “Central Asian Republics constitute the extended neighborhood of India. Security, stability and prosperity of this region is intimately linked with that of India and world ultimately.”

As the economic and geo-political center of gravity of the world has shifted towards the indo-Pacific,

India has emerged as an ideal ‘swing state’, especially pursued by the west to counter China.

India As An Alternative To Reduce Dependence On China’s Supply Chain

1. Expanding Manufacturing Base: Companies like Apple and Samsung are ramping up production in India, reducing reliance on China’s manufacturing hubs.
2. Strengthening Supply Chain Resilience: The Supply Chain Resilience Initiative (SCRI) with Japan and Australia helps build secure, diversified supply chains outside of China.
3. Revising Trade Privileges: Renegotiations under the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) enhance India’s export potential to Western markets, directly competing with Chinese products.

India Being A Strategic Ally To Counter China’s Political And Economic Dominance

1. Indo-Pacific Strategy: NATO’s support for India’s role in the Indo-Pacific strengthens its position in maritime security, providing a counterbalance to China’s growing influence in the region.
2. Multilateral Influence: India’s growing role in the Quad and BRICS enables it to assert influence on regional policies, effectively countering China’s dominance in global platforms​.
3. Military Modernization: India’s procurement of advanced defense systems from the US, Israel, and France strengthens its military capabilities, particularly along its contested borders with China.
4. Naval Cooperation: The Malabar Naval Exercises with the Quad nations (US, Japan, and Australia) significantly enhance India’s naval capabilities and strategic presence along key maritime routes, countering China’s assertiveness.
5. India’s diplomatic support from the UN and G7 summits during its border disputes with China highlights strong Western backing, reinforcing India’s global standing and regional influence.
6. Defense Technology: The BECA agreement with the US improves India’s access to advanced defense technologies, giving it a crucial edge in surveillance and targeting capabilities against China.
7. Tech Collaboration: The Indo-US Artificial Intelligence Initiative promotes joint technological development, reducing India’s reliance on Chinese technology while boosting its innovation capacity in key sectors.

VALUE ADDITION Emerging global dominance of china China’s Supply Chain Control GloballyManufacturing Hub: China accounts for 28% of global manufacturing output Eg. It produces 70% of the world’s smartphones.Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)   It involves over 140 countries and is projected to invest around $1 trillion to enhance trade connectivity across Asia, Europe, and Africa.China’s Political and Economic DominanceEconomic Growth: second-largest economy with a GDP of approximately $17 trillion, maintained an average growth rate of about 6% over the past decade.Geopolitical Influence: China is a permanent member of UNSC and plays a dominant role in international organizations like NSG,SCO,G20 and BRICS.

As S. Jaishankar noted, while economics and demographics will bring India and the West closer, “the real difference would be made by politics and values.” For this partnership to thrive, both must align their worldviews and deepen collaboration to create a balanced global order.

As per OSCE, the Doctrine of Democratic Governance is a system of government where institutions function according to democratic processes and norms, both internally and in their interaction with other institutions.

Importance of public perception of integrity and commitment of civil servants

Integrity:

1. Transparency: Eg- Ashok Khemka, an IAS officer, is known for his transparency, especially during his whistleblowing on land scams in Haryana.
2. Accountability: Integrity ensures accountability, as seen in Kiran Bedi’s tenure as Director General of Tihar Jail, where she introduced reforms that improved conditions and ensured greater transparency.
3. Fairness: Eg- T.N. Seshan, former Chief Election Commissioner, enforced electoral laws with strict impartiality, boosting public confidence in the electoral system.
4. Encouragement of Participation: During COVID-19, IAS Iqbal Singh Chahal with his Dharavi model, engaging communities in awareness campaigns showcased commitment, leading to higher public participation in health measures.

Commitment:

1. Responsiveness: Eg- Durga Shakti Nagpal, an IAS officer, took a strong stand against illegal sand mining in Uttar Pradesh, showcasing her commitment to enforcing the law.
2. Effectiveness and Efficiency: E. Sreedharan, known as the “Metro Man,” exemplified commitment by ensuring the timely and efficient completion of the Delhi Metro project, enhancing public perception of governance.
3. Rule of Law: Sanjukta Parashar, an IPS officer in Assam, is known her active role in combating insurgency.
4. Inclusiveness: Armstrong Pame, an IAS officer in Manipur, built a 100 km road connecting remote villages without government funds
5. Trust Building: Eg. IPS Atul Kulkarni started bharosa cell as grievance redressal platform for women and transgenders.

Challenges

Way forward

Corruption: Corruption scandals can significantly tarnish civil servants’ images, thereby tarnishing image of whole administration. Bureaucratic Red Tape: Excessive bureaucratic procedures can frustrate citizens, leading to negative perceptions. Bureaucrats are often seen as unapproachable, diminishing trust. Political Interference: Civil servants face challenges due to political interference, affecting their ability to act impartially. Instances of pressure to act against principles lead to skepticism about commitment. Media Scrutiny: Negative media portrayals can shape public perception unfairly. Civil servants vilified in the media despite acting in public interest create narratives undermining their integrity.

360-degree appraisal: Replacing lower-level interviews with multi-stakeholder feedback (MSF) performance evaluations. Insulating Civil Servants from Political Interference, establishing a civil service posting and transfer board, Professionalisation with Stability of Tenure & Competition Building a Citizen-Centric Administration: In 2004, the Hota Committee suggested using ICT for effective and accountable service delivery Outcome-Oriented – Model Code of Governance to compare governance standards. Clear guidelines should be formulated for Mission Karmayogi which enshrines rule to role based governance.

“Every civil servant of India should help the countrymen in making their dreams come true,”PM Narendra Modi. With this vision,there is a critical need for positive public perception of civil servants to ensure effective democratic governance. 

United Nations defines poverty as “a state in which an individual or group lacks the financial resources to meet their basic needs for a minimum standard of living.” WHO defines malnutrition as “the condition that results from eating a diet in which one or more nutrients are either not enough or too much, causing health problems.

 

How Poverty and Malnutrition Create a Vicious Cycle:

1. Economic Barriers to Nutrition: Low-income households often lack access to nutritious food due to financial constraints, exacerbating malnutrition. 
2. Impacts of Malnutrition on Poverty: Eg. ASER reports show higher dropout rates and lower literacy levels among malnourished children in India.
3. Healthcare Costs of Malnutrition: Eg. Malnutrition-related diseases increase healthcare expenditure, limiting resources for other essentials like education.
4. High Child Mortality: 68.2% of death of children below five years old are caused by malnutrition.
5. Educational Limitations Due to Cognitive Delays: Eg. The ASER report indicates that malnourished children are more likely to drop out of school.
6. Productivity Loss and Economic Growth: Eg. The World Bank estimates that malnutrition costs between 5% and 11% of GDP in regions like Africa and Asia.
7. Social Exclusion: Malnourished individuals are often socially excluded due to their reduced economic and social contributions, further deepening poverty.
8. Intergenerational Transfer of Poverty: Malnourished parents are less able to provide for their children, who then grow up in poverty, continuing the cycle.

Steps to Break the Cycle:

1. Innovative PDS reforms like distributing e-food coupons similar to e-Rupi as experimented in Assam, home delivery of ration material and PDS reforms in accordance with recommendations of Shanta Kumar Committee will help reduce both poverty and hunger problem.
2. Nutrition Programs: Strengthen schemes like POSHAN Abhiyaan and the Mid-Day Meal Scheme to ensure access to nutritious food, especially for children and pregnant women. Eg. Tamil Nadu has introduced Breakfast in  Mid-Day Meal 
3. Women Empowerment: Eg. Kerala’s Kudumbashree program empowers women, enhancing their role in family health and economic decision-making.
4. Economic Empowerment: Expand livelihood programs like MGNREGA to provide stable incomes, improving access to food and healthcare.
5. Community Nutrition Education: Educating communities on proper nutrition and food safety can help address malnutrition at the grassroots level. Brazil’s Fome Zero (Zero Hunger) program has successfully reduced hunger through community-driven nutrition education.

Brazil’s Bolsa Família Programfinancial aid to low-income families, conditional on their children attending school and getting regular health check-ups, including vaccinations.Stunting reduced by 13%, Extreme poverty dropped by 15%.

As Mark Winne states, “We cannot end hunger unless we end poverty.” Thus, Only by sustained efforts can we regain progress towards goals of Zero poverty(SDG-1) and Zero Hunger(SDG -2).

 

A public charitable trust is a legal entity (established under the Indian Trusts Act of 1882) that serves the public by carrying out charitable activities. They are created to pool resources and assets to achieve philanthropic goals. Eg-  Tata Trusts, Azim Premji Foundation,etc. 

Public Charitable Trusts and Their Role in Inclusive Development in India

1. Poverty Reduction – Eg- Tata Trusts’ Lakhpati Kisan Initiative in Jharkhand aims to create sustainable livelihoods by empowering tribal farmers with improved agricultural practices
2. Educational Enhancement: Eg. scholarships by Dhirubhai Ambani Foundation .
3. Healthcare Accessibility: Eg. telemedicine services by Piramal Swasthya initiative  in Assam have delivered over 5 million consultations.
4. Empowerment Through Skill Development – Eg- The Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) has uplifted over 1.5 million women by providing vocational training and access to financial services.
5. Infrastructure Development – Eg- The Infosys Foundation focuses on building infrastructure such as schools, hospitals, and sanitation facilities in rural areas. 
6. Complementing Government Efforts: Charitable trusts assist in implementing government schemes, such as Swachh Bharat, by providing water, sanitation, and health services in rural areas.
7. Social Inclusion- Eg-  The Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) works in tribal regions of Gujarat, promoting social inclusion through watershed management and livelihoods for marginalized communities.
8. Environmental Sustainability – The Sundarban Social Development Centre in West Bengal works on mangrove restoration and eco-friendly livelihoods, supporting 10,000 families while preserving the environment.
9. Leveraging CSR for Development: Eg- Azim Premji Foundation signed pact with karnataka government to provide eggs in mid day meals.

Case Study: Bill and Melinda Gates Foundationthe Avahan Program to combat HIV/AIDS succeeded in reducing the spread of the disease, reaching over 300,000 high-risk individuals with prevention measures.

Issues with public charitable trust in india

1. Misuse of Funds: In 2020, the Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay Smriti Manch faced scrutiny after the Delhi High Court flagged irregularities in fund usage, with donations being misappropriated for non-charitable purposes.
2. Governance Issues: The Tata Trusts were involved in a legal dispute with the Income Tax Department over misuse of tax exemptions.
3. Lack of Accountability: In 2021, the Gandhi Smarak Nidhi Trust faced criticism for lack of transparency and ineffective program implementation, raising concerns about accountability.
4. Impact Measurement Challenges: McKinsey’s India Impact Evaluation Report 2020 revealed that only 12% of public charitable trusts have mechanisms to track long-term social outcomes effectively.
5. Dominant top-down approach: Development programs driven by donors often impose a top-down approach, where external organizations dictate priorities and goals instead of considering local needs and perspectives.
6. External interference: Relying heavily on donor funding diminishes the ability to negotiate and involve communities due to the conditions imposed by donors.
7. Dependency Theory: Dependency theory suggests that international aid, including that provided by donor agencies, can create a cycle of dependency among recipient nations. The aid leads to reliance on foreign funds rather than fostering domestic growth and self-sufficiency.

Way forward

1. Monitoring: There should be better coordination between Ministries of Home Affairs and Finance in terms of monitoring and regulating illicit and unaccounted funds. 
2. Streamlined Registration Process: Simplify and standardize the registration process for charitable trusts across states to reduce bureaucratic hurdles. This can encourage more organizations to formalize their operations.
3. Capacity Building and Training: Provide training programs and resources for trustees and staff of charitable trusts to enhance their governance skills, financial management, and operational efficiency.

“Public charitable trusts and NGOs are crucial pillars of democracy. They fill the gap between government actions and societal needs, ensuring more inclusive development.” – Amartya Sen.

The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments established the framework for Panchayati Raj and urban local bodies, promoting inclusive development and addressing local issues effectively.

Role of local bodies in providing good governance at local level 

1. Decentralisation and Self-Governance: bringing governance closer to citizens and enhancing democratic participation in decision-making affecting daily lives. Eg-  Gram Sabhas 
2. Rule of Law: Local bodies enforce regulations such as building codes, sanitation rules, and land use policies. Eg- municipalities taking action against illegal encroachments.
3. Responsiveness: Local bodies respond quickly to local issues such as waste management. Eg-  the Indore Municipal Corporation swiftly implemented waste segregation policies, earning Indore the title of the cleanest city in India.
4.  Consensus-Oriented: Eg- Village Development Plans (VDPs) involve consultations with local communities to align projects with their needs, promoting consensus.
5. Equity and Inclusiveness: Programs like Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY), implemented by local bodies, aim to provide affordable housing to the economically weaker sections, ensuring social equity.
6. Effectiveness and Efficiency: Eg- as per World Bank, decentralisation and local governance through PRIs reduced corruption and leakages in public welfare schemes by about 15-20%.
7. Accountability: Eg- social audits of MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act).

Challenges

1. Financial – Panchayats in India generate only 1% of their revenue through local taxes. The majority of their income, approximately 95%, comes from grants by the central and state governments.
2. Parastatal Agencies: State-run bodies like urban development authorities and public corporations often take over key functions, limiting the autonomy of local bodies. Eg- Delhi Jal Board
3. Improper Devolution of Functions: Many states have not fully devolved powers to local governments, leaving them with restricted control over important governance functions.
4. Proxy Representation – Corporator pati/Mayor Pati syndrome/ Sarpanch Pati syndrome
5. Lack of Staff:  local bodies face a severe shortage of skilled personnel, hindering their ability to perform assigned functions. As of 2022, about 35% of municipal corporation posts remain unfilled, affecting service delivery and governance.

Pros And Cons Of Merging Rural Local Bodies With Urban Local Bodies 

Pros

Cons

Rural areas will benefit from improved infrastructure from urban areas like roads, water, education, etc., aligning them with urban development standards Integrated Development Strategy: Eg. transportation networks can be designed to seamlessly connect urban centers with surrounding rural areas, improving accessibility. Administrative Cost Reduction: By consolidating services, merging can lead to a decrease in administrative overhead and  streamlining of operations. Unified development and governance: the merger will bring rural areas under governance frameworks of urban local bodies, enabling implementation of master plans, development control regulations and economic growth strategies, fostering better planning and sustainable development. Already ongoing policies and frameworks like District planning committee, Rurban mission have their essence in merger of rural and urban policy and developmental needs.

Increased taxation: rural areas fears enhanced taxation, as urban bodies levy higher charges than village adding financial burdens on residents. Strain on municipal resources: ULBs already struggling with limited funds and manpower resources, making it difficult to provide efficient and timely services to merged areas. Political resistance from both side: village leadership will be wary of losing their influence, while existing councilors in urban areas might resist diverting funds or staff at expense of their constituencies. Local Needs Overlook: The unique needs and priorities of rural communities may be overshadowed by urban concerns, leading to inadequate attention to rural development issues. Skewed Resource Distribution: There’s a risk that resources may still be unevenly distributed, favoring urban areas due to their larger populations and political influence, thereby perpetuating existing inequalities. Identity and Heritage Erosion: Rural communities may fear losing their unique identities and cultural heritage in a merged governance system, as urban priorities may overshadow traditional practices.

Way forward

1. Instead of directly merging rural bodies with urban ones, create independent municipal councils in peri-urban areas, improve infrastructure and governance, then merge with larger municipalities.
2. Revitalize gram sabhas and ward committees through inclusive discussions and use of social media to facilitate member communication.

Drawing from Gandhian Swarajya, any merger must ensure local self-governance and empowerment, where both rural and urban needs are addressed without compromising the essence of decentralization.

CAG is a constitutional body under article 148 that ensures Executive accountability in India. It audit the receipts and expenditures of the Central Government, State Governments, and other bodies that receive funding from the Government. B.R Ambedkar called CAG as most important office in Constitution of India.

Role of CAG ensuring legality of expenditure 

1. Article 149: CAG audits all receipts and expenditures of the Union and States to ensure legality. Eg: In the 2G Spectrum Case (2010), CAG found illegal allocation of licenses without proper procedures.
2. Article 266: Funds from the Consolidated Fund can only be withdrawn with legislative approval. Eg: CAG’s audit of Assam’s finances revealed unauthorized withdrawals from the Consolidated Fund.
3. Article 150: The accounts must be kept in a form prescribed by the President on CAG’s advice. Eg: CAG’s audit of Railway finances found non-compliance with the prescribed format.
4. Section 13 of CAG Act, 1971: Authorizes CAG to audit expenditures to ensure they are legally available for the purpose. Eg: CAG’s audit of MGNREGA funds revealed misuse on non-permitted projects.
5. Article 151: CAG submits audit reports to the President/Governor for presentation in Parliament/State Legislature. Eg: CAG’s report on Commonwealth Games highlighted legal breaches in procurement.

CAG ensuring propriety of expenditure 

1. Section 17 of CAG Act, 1971: Allows CAG to audit the efficiency and propriety of transactions.
   Eg: In the Coal Block Allocation audit, CAG questioned the lack of competitive bidding.
2. Regulation 41: CAG can conduct propriety audits to ensure spending is wise and economical. Eg: CAG’s audit of Mid-Day Meal Scheme found excessive infrastructure spending with little impact.
3. Propriety Audit: CAG examines the fairness and wisdom of expenditures. Eg: In the Debt Waiver Scheme audit, CAG found ineligible beneficiaries receiving waivers.
4. Subsidy/Grant Audits: CAG audits the effective use of government subsidies. Eg: In Ujjwala Yojana, CAG found that many beneficiaries could not afford LPG refills.
5. Transparency in Spending: Eg. audits of projects like the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation are published online, allowing citizens to scrutinize how public funds are utilized. 
6. Safeguarding Public Interest by scrutinizing financial management practices within government entities. Eg. CAG’s audits revealed inefficiencies and mismanagement in Air India.

Issues with CAG

1. Though legal and regulatory audits are compulsory, but proprietary audits are discretionary.                         
2. Paul Appleby criticized role of CAG as auditor by saying it has negative and paralyzing effect on administration.
3. Accounts are audited after actual expenditure is made, a mere post-facto audit.

Adopting a British System where CAG is both Comptroller as well as Auditor General can strengthen role of CAG as  one of the bulwarks of the democratic system of government in India.

The cabinet system is a government in which the real executive power rests with a cabinet of ministers who are collectively responsible to the legislature (Article 75). Parliamentary sovereignty refers to the supremacy of the Parliament in the legislative process.

Marginalization Of Parliamentary Supremacy Due To Cabinet System

• No proper separation of power –  results in abuse of power that leads to arbitrariness.
• Decline of Parliamentary Committees –  The percentage of Bills having been referred to the DRSCs is reduced from 60% during 14th LS to 71% and 27%.
• 
• Lesser time spent on scrutiny- Eg- about 69 percent of the Bills introduced in Parliament were passed in the same session during the 17th Lok Sabha. 
• Delegated Legislation: In V.K.Kunjlengam Case, supreme court noted Increasing reliance on delegated legislation means Parliament, reducing its supremacy in law-making.
• Party Discipline: Parliamentary members are often expected to follow party lines, limiting independent legislative debate. Eg- use of Whip
• Frequent ordinances, now 11 per year as compared to 6 per year prior to 2010, bypasses parliament’s role of law making and accountability over executive.In D.C. Wadhwa vs. State of Bihar, the Supreme Court criticized the repetitive use of ordinances. 
• Government Control over Parliamentary Agenda: The legislative agenda is predominantly set by the cabinet with minimal input from minority parties or independent members restricting diverse viewpoints from being represented in legislative processes.

Role of parliament remains significant

1. Ultimate Legislative Authority: All major laws and budgets require approval from Parliament after due deliberation. 
2. Private Member’s Bills and Debates: Eg-  Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Bill
3. Role of Committees: Eg-  Public Accounts Committee (PAC), chaired by the opposition, scrutinized the 2G spectrum case
4. Opposition’s Role in Parliament: Intense debates on policies such as GST illustrate how opposition parties can mobilize public sentiment and challenge government actions effectively.
5. Judicial Oversight: Eg- SC striking down of Section 66A of the IT Act in 2015 (Shreya Singhal case)

Strengthening parliamentary processes is vital for a vibrant Indian democracy. Thus restoring the balance of power between the executive and legislature is essential for effective governance.

Lok Adalats and Arbitration Tribunals are Statutory instruments for alternative dispute resolution that aim to provide speedy and cost-effective resolution of disputes outside of the traditional court system.

 

Difference Between Lok Adalat And Arbitration Tribunals

Aspect	Lokadalat	Arbitration Tribunal
Definition	A forum for resolving disputes through conciliation under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987.	A quasi-judicial body established to resolve disputes outside the court system based on an arbitration agreement.
Nature	Conciliatory and informal.	Adversarial and formal, similar to court proceedings.
Authority	Non-judicial, presided over by a judge or a legal expert.	Judicial authority to make binding decisions.
Legal Framework	Governed by the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987.	Governed by the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996.
Process	Dispute resolution through negotiation, conciliation, and compromise.	Resolution based on the arbitration agreement and arbitral award, with arbitrator(s) acting as a judge.
Types of Cases	Primarily civil cases, including family disputes, land disputes, and some minor criminal cases (compoundable offenses).	Primarily civil matters, especially commercial disputes; no jurisdiction over criminal cases.
Binding Nature	The decisions (settlements) reached are binding and final if both parties agree.	The arbitral award is binding on the parties and enforceable like a court decree.
Cost of Proceedings	No court fee	Parties bear the cost, which can be high due to arbitration fees.
Powers and nature of cases and settlement	They can settle disputes based on compromise, and their decisions are considered as decrees of civil courts.	Commercial disputes, business contracts, and international disputes.Not applicable for criminal or matrimonial disputes.
Appeal Mechanism	Generally, no appeal is allowed if the award is mutually agreed.	Appeals can be filed in courts against arbitral awards under certain circumstances.

Powers In Civil And Criminal Cases 

1. Lok Adalats:
   1. Can entertain civil cases like property disputes, family disputes, land disputes.
   2. Can also take up criminal cases but only compoundable offenses (minor offenses where parties can settle).
2. Arbitration Tribunals:
   1. Only civil cases, typically commercial disputes, can be addressed.
   2. No jurisdiction over criminal matters.

Issue	Way Forward
Lack of Awareness	Sri Krishna Committee suggests including ADR in legal literacy programs.
Judicial Intervention	UNCITRAL Model Law limits judicial interference.Law Commission (246th Report) calls for amending the Arbitration Act to reduce court involvement.
High Costs of Arbitration	NITI Aayog advises promoting institutional arbitration with cost caps.

As ‘Justice delayed is justice denied’. Both Lok Adalats and Arbitration Tribunals need to be strengthened to increase accessibility, affordability and quality of Justice in the spirit of Article 39.

One nation-one election principle, which seeks to synchronize Lok Sabha and state assembly elections, aims to decrease the frequency of elections and streamline the electoral process, thereby improving efficiency and reducing costs.

Electoral reforms as suggested by various committees 

1. On  “one nation – one election”

1. Ram Nath Covind Panel –  suggested 15 amendments including insertion of a new Article 82A and Amendment of Article 327.
2. It was supported by Election Commission in 1983 itself. In 1999, the LCI headed by Justice B. P. Jeevan Reddy also advocated for simultaneous elections.
3. In 2018, the Law Commission of India (LCI)– In 2018, it released a draft report on simultaneous elections and recommended three alternatives to synchronise elections in India.
4. Other Reforms

1. Dinesh Goswami Committee (1990): Recommended limits on election expenses, voter IDs, and transparent political funding.
2. Tarkunde Committee (1975): Suggested proportional representation and state funding of elections.
3. Indrajit Gupta Committee (1998): Advocated for state funding of elections.
4. Vohra Committee (1993): Explored criminalization in politics.

Need for electoral reforms and one nation – one election

1. Reduced financial burden: The 2014 Lok Sabha elections cost ₹3,870 crore, while a single state election like Bihar (2015) cost ₹300 crore. ONOE can reduce costs to ₹4,500 crore overall. (ECI).
2. Reduced use of Money Power – as per report by the Centre for Media Studies, the 2024 election is expected to cost approximately Rs 1,00,000 crore (increased from 6 paise per elector in 1951 to Rs 46 in 2014). Simultaneous elections will lower these costs.
3. Less disruption from MCC: Frequent MCC impositions stall development work for months. Fewer elections will limit MCC duration and expedite governance.
4. Improved administrative efficiency: Eg- over 11 million personnel were deployed in the 2019 elections. Simultaneous elections streamline this effort.
5. Fewer populist measures: Governments announce short-term policies like farm loan waivers (e.g., ₹70,000 crore in 2008-09) during elections. Simultaneous polls would encourage long-term policy-making.
6. Improved social harmony: Simultaneous elections reduce the polarization caused by repetitive campaigns. Eg- communal riots before Delhi Elections
7. Increased voter participation – according to the Law Commission, ONOE will increase voter turnout because it will be more easy for people to cast many ballots at once

Challenges Associated With One Nation One Election:

1. Reduced Accountability: As Per Yogendra Yadav ONOE limits voters’ ability to hold governments accountable regularly, as they get fewer opportunities to express discontent with the ruling party’s performance.
2. By-Elections due to the untimely resignation or death of an elected representative will still be necessary, thus continuing some level of electoral process throughout the year.
3. Dilution of Local Issues: According to research by IDFC Institute, if elections are held simultaneously, there’s a 77% likelihood of voters favoring the same political party or alliance for both state assemblies and the Lok Sabha, national issues could overshadow local concerns.
4. Imbalance of Power: A national party dominating the Lok Sabha elections could also sweep the state assembly elections, resulting in a lack of checks and balances on the ruling regime’s powers.
5. Undermining Federalism by concentrating power at the center. States may lose autonomy and face reduced regional representation.
6. Political Instability: In the era of coalition governments, there could be increased instances of horse-trading and disqualifications of MPs or MLAs, leading to political instability.
7. Constitutional and Legal Hurdles: Eg- Ram Nath Covind panel suggested 15 amendments. There may be issues in generating consensus, potentially delaying its implementation
8. Logistical Challenges such as the availability of electronic voting machines, personnel, and other resources.

Way Forward

1. Cluster State Elections: As suggested by Law Commission – two elections in five years or all elections falling due in a calendar year should be conducted together.
2. Coupling the ‘no-confidence motion’ along with the ‘vote of confidence’ in an alternative government. Eg- Constructive vote of no confidence in Germany
3. Building consensus among political parties and states through open dialogues, consultations, and deliberations

However, since the issue is concerned with the federal structure which is part of Basic Structure of the Constitution (S. R. Bommai Judgment), further scrutiny and analysis of one nation one election is the need of the hour.

“India is, the cradle of the human race, birthplace of human speech, mother of history, the grandmother of legend, & great grandmother of tradition.” – Mark Twain. However, this richness often intersects with socio-economic marginalities, disproportionately impacting certain communities.

Cultural Diversity Intersect With Socio-Economic Marginalities Reinforcing Inequality

1. Caste and Socio-Economic Marginality: Lower castes like SCs and STs face systemic discrimination, limiting access to education, jobs, and land. Eg- 79% of rural SC households rely on manual labour, reflecting their economic disadvantage (SECC 2011).
2. Sociologist M.N.Srinivas in his concept of ‘dominant caste’ noted economic status of various cultural groups reflects historical privileges and disadvantages. Eg. Dominant castes like Brahmins, Jats, Marathas, Reddy, Yadavs, etc historically benefited from better access to education and employment.
3. Tribal Identity and Economic Exclusion: suffer from high poverty and displacement due to development projects. 50% of STs live in multidimensional poverty (MPI 2019). Eg- Bhils in Narmada valley displaced due to Sardar sarovar dam.
4. Religious Diversity and Economic Inequality: The Sachar Committee (2006) reported that Muslims lag behind in most socio-economic indicators.
5. Linguistic Diversity and Regional Inequality: Eg. ASER report noted only 14% of tribal children in grade 3 have comprehension skills.
6. Gender and Intersectionality: Women from marginalised cultural groups (SCs, STs, Muslims) experience double marginalisation due to both gender and socio-cultural identity. Only 11% of ST women complete higher education (NFHS-4), highlighting intersectional disadvantages.
7. Geographic and ethnic factors especially in context of north-eastern states, which are rich cultural diverse region, but experiencing lower socio-economic development. Eg. Ongoing conflict of kuki vs meitei in Manipur.
8. Policy and Governance Challenges: Affirmative action has helped, but elite capture within groups like OBCs leaves the most vulnerable excluded. Eg- Denotified Tribes (DNTs) and other subgroups often do not fully benefit from welfare schemes.

Challenging the Proposition

1. Political Representation: 15% of Parliament seats are reserved for SCs, and 7.5% for STs, enhancing political participation.
2. Religious and Linguistic Minorities Thriving: Eg: Sikhs are one of the wealthiest agricultural communities, and Jains have the highest literacy and income levels in India (Census 2011).
3. Affirmative Action Success: Reservations in education and employment for SCs, STs, and OBCs. SC/ST enrolment in higher education has risen to 21% due to reservation policies (AISHE 2020-21).
4. Economic Liberalisation: Economic reforms have benefited certain sections of marginalised groups, particularly OBCs, in accessing jobs in sectors like IT and services.
5. Development Programs: Government welfare schemes like MGNREGA and PM-KISAN have provided direct support to marginalised communities. Eg- MGNREGA created 309 crore person-days of work in 2022-23.
6. Cultural enrichment: diversity has promoted different avenues such as art,food,tourism and handicrafts. Eg. Red ant chutney of odisha got GI tag.

Way Forward

1. Strengthen Implementation of Affirmative Action –  Sub-categorization of SC and ST as mandated by SC in State of Punjab & Ors. vs Davinder Singh & Ors.
2. Promotion of Local Languages and culture: New Education Policy 2020 has supported the three-language policy.
3. Cultural Integration and Economic Empowerment: Supporting tribal handicrafts in regions like the Northeast and Odisha can create sustainable livelihoods while preserving cultural heritage. 
4. Improving Social Justice Systems: Strengthening the implementation of the Forest Rights Act of 2006 and PESA
5. Fostering Community-Based Development: Eg- Kudumbshree Model of Kerala
6. Enhancing Political Representation: Early implementation of 106th Constitutional Amendment Act.

A a multi-pronged approach with stakeholder participation is need to realise the Trinity of Social, Political and Economic empowerment of Marginalised communities. As PM Modi stated, “The nation is not just land for us, but an inspirational unit,” emphasizing the importance of unity in addressing these disparities.

Globalization describes the growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information, often led to changes in lifestyle, beliefs, ideologies and economies.

Increased Urban Migration  By Skilled, Young, Unmarried Women From Various Classes Due To Globalization 

1. Economic Opportunities in Urban Areas: According to a NASSCOM report (2021), the Indian IT sector is projected to create over 1.5 million new jobs by 2025, with women constituting about 34% of the workforce in these cities, highlighting the demand for skilled labor.
2. Access to Education and Skill Development: As per All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) 2021-2022 which said that female enrolment in Higher Education increased to 2.07 crore in 2021-22 from 1.57 crore in 2014-15 
3. Financial Independence and Personal Freedom: Working in urban tech sectors enables women to achieve financial autonomy. 
4. Social Mobility: Migration provides young women with opportunities for upward social mobility, allowing them to improve their socio-economic status.
5. Breaking Traditional Family Norms: A study by UN Women (2021) found that 60% of urban women prioritize their careers over traditional family expectations.
6. Access to Better Living Standards: According to the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO, 2020), urban areas have seen a 20% increase in access to basic services, contributing to a higher quality of life that attracts young women.

Globalization’s Impact on personal freedoms

Positive

Negative

1. Economic Independence: reducing the pressure of early marriage and childbirth. 2. Breaking Traditional Norms and to explore their personal identities, choose their attire, and build social networks.  3. Freedom in Lifestyle Choices about relationships, career paths, and social activities. 4. Enjoying Fundamental rights like Right to bodily autonomy under Article 21. 5. Professional Growth – Access to better career opportunities and skill development. 6. Changing Attitudes: Eg:The MeToo movement in India has raised awareness and changed workplace policies on harassment. 7. Increase in Live-In Relationships: A 2023 report by the India Today Group found that 18% of urban youth are open to live-in relationships, a significant increase from 5% in 2010.

1. Persistent Glass Ceiling: Women still face significant barriers in employment opportunities. Eg: In 2022, women held only 15% of senior management positions in India. 2. Social Media Challenges: According to NCRB data, crimes against women increased by 15% in 2021. 3. Socio-Cultural Expectations: often relegated to “pink-collar” jobs such as nursing and caregiving. India ranks 135th out of 156 countries in the Gender Gap Index (2022). 4. Mental Health Issues: Among those aged 15-39, suicide has become a leading cause of death, with women accounting for 71% of these cases in this age group.

Globalization’s Impact on familial relationship

Positive

Negative

1. Secularization of Customs: The rising preference for court marriages over traditional big fat Indian weddings. 2. Shift in Familial Expectations – Changing family roles as daughters become breadwinners or key contributors. 3. Assertiveness in Nuclear Families: Women find it easier to assert their rights in nuclear families which has seen a rise due to globalization.  4. Financial support of family increases respect and status. 5. Emotional Maturity: more self-aware and emotionally resilient, enabling them to handle family dynamics with patience and understanding.

1. Diminished Sacredness of Marriage: The divorce rate in India, though still low, has risen, with urban areas like Bangalore reporting a 4.5% divorce rate as per a 2022 study by the Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine. 2. Emotional Distance: Urban migration often leads to less frequent interactions with family members, creating emotional distance.  3. Conflicts Over Independence: Migrant women may face disapproval from family regarding their lifestyle choices, such as working late hours or living independently.  4. Cultural and Generational Gaps: Migrant women may adopt new values and lifestyles that differ from their family’s traditions, leading to misunderstandings and tensions.

As per american philosopher Nancy Fraser, “Globalization has the potential to both liberate and oppress women, depending on the context and the policies that are put in place.”

India’s constitutional vision of equity and social justice, embodied in preamble, Articles 15, 16, and 46, has led to extensive affirmative action policies. However, the gap between policy formulation and ground-level impact remains significant, revealing systemic issues in implementation and societal structures.

Comprehensive Policies For Equity And Social Justice

1. Constitutional Provisions guarantees Fundamental Rights(article 14,15,16,19) and Directive Principles of State Policy(art 46). 
2. Welfare Schemes like the MGNREGA and the National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP). 
3. Social Justice Institutions such as the NCSC, NCST, and the NHRC monitor violations, recommend policy changes, and ensure accountability in protecting human rights.
4. Laws for Protection like Rights Of Persons With Disability Act, Prevention of Atrocities Act, Domestic Violence Act,etc.
5. Educational and Health Reform: The Right to Education (RTE) Act and Ayushman Bharat.
6. Judicial Contributions: Public Interest Litigations (PILs). Eg. Indira Sawhney Case 

Achievements of Equity and Social Justice Policies 

1. Poverty Reduction: As per Multidimensional Poverty Index (2023), India lifted 415 million people out of poverty between 2005-06 and 2019-21.
2. Financial Inclusion: As of 2023, over 500 million Jan Dhan accounts have been opened,and 56% of these accounts belong to women, promoting gender-inclusive growth.
3. Agricultural Growth and Rural Development:

1. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): In 2022-23, 309 crore person-days of employment were generated.
2. Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN): Under this scheme, farmers receive ₹6,000 annually in three instalments, benefiting 11 crore farmers as of 2023.
3. Ayushman Bharat – Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY): Over 20 crore beneficiaries have been registered, providing free treatment for over 4 crore hospital admissions.

4. Education – The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at the elementary level reached 99.2% in 2022, reflecting near-universal enrolment.
5. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY): Over 3 crore houses have been constructed under the rural and urban versions of the scheme.
6. Swachh Bharat Mission: Nearly 10 crore toilets were built, significantly improving sanitation access and contributing to the elimination of open defecation.

Why are Underprivileged sections not getting the full benefits of affirmative action

Political Factors

1. Implementation Gaps: Programs like MGNREGA face delays in wage payments, with only 54% of households getting full work in 2022-23.
2. Inconsistent Representation: 14% women representation in Parliament, Pati Panchayat in PRI’s
3. Creamy Layer Effect: Mandal Commission Reported, affluent within disadvantaged groups, like the top 10% of SC/ST beneficiaries, dominate reservation benefits, leaving the most marginalized behind .
4. Intersectionality Neglect: Policies often ignore intersections like Dalit women, who face dual discrimination.
5. Economic Factors

1. Poverty and Resource Access: 30% of SCs and 45% of STs live below the poverty line, limiting access to education and healthcare despite affirmative action.
2. Quality vs. Quantity Debate: Kothari Commission noted Quantitative improvements in education (35% increase in SC/ST enrollment) lack qualitative support, such as skill development.
3. Social Factors:

1. Caste-Based Discrimination: as per NCRB, 50,900 cases of crimes against SCs in 2022 highlight ongoing caste bias.
2. Lack of Awareness: 45% of rural SC/ST beneficiaries are unaware of affirmative action schemes, as per PRS Legislative Research (2021).
3. Technological Factors:

1. Data Deficiency: Absence of caste census data hampers effective policymaking, as highlighted by the Rangarajan Committee Report (2014).
2. Digital Divide: Only 15% of rural households have internet access, limiting SC/ST students’ ability to benefit from online education.
3. Poor Technology Integration: 60% of tribal villages lack banking infrastructure, causing delays in DBT schemes like PM-KISAN, as per NITI Aayog (2022).

5. Weak Law Enforcement: Only 25% of cases under the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act result in conviction, per NCRB (2022).
6. Environmental Factors:

1. Geographical Disparities: 60% of tribal villages in the Northeast lack access to secondary education, limiting benefits from affirmative action, per NITI Aayog (2020).
2. Urban Marginalisation: 70% of urban migrant workers lack access to PDS and health benefits, per Aajeevika Bureau (2022).

Way Forward

1. Addressing Creamy Layer and Elite Capture: Introduce income criteria to ensure reservations benefit the economically disadvantaged within categories. 
2. Promoting Social Inclusion and Awareness through initiatives like “Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao”.
3. Implement a socio-educational index that considers educational and socio-economic factors along with caste. The Sachar Committee Report recommended data-driven approaches to better serve marginalized groups.
4. Sub-categorization of SC and ST to advance affirmative action as mandated by SC in State of Punjab & Ors. vs Davinder Singh & Ors.

“The spirit of inclusion pervades every aspect of our social life. Affirmative action must be strengthened as an instrument of inclusion.” – President Droupadi Murmu

Regional disparity refers to the unequal distribution of economic resources, development, and opportunities across different regions within a country. It results in significant differences in income, living standards, infrastructure, and employment levels across areas.

Difference between regional disparity and diversity

Aspect	Regional Disparity	Diversity
Definition	unequal distribution of resources, wealth, and opportunities across different regions of a country. (negative)	existence of varied cultural, linguistic, economic, and social differences within a society or region. (positive)
Basis	Economic: Primarily economic and developmental, focusing on gaps in growth between regions.	Cultural: Rooted in cultural, ethnic, linguistic, and social differences.
Examples in India	The per capita income of the five richest states in India was 338% higher than that of the bottom states in 2017-18.	India has 122 officially recognized languages, but there are more than 19,500 languages and dialects spoken as a mother tongue.
Nature of Issue	Exclusive: Leads to grievances and demands for equitable development and resources, like special category status.	Inclusive: Celebrates coexistence of different identities and is not necessarily viewed as problematic.
Effects	Creates political instability, demand for autonomy, and social unrest in underdeveloped regions.	Enhances cultural richness and plurality, but can also lead to identity-based conflicts if not managed properly.
Solutions	Balanced regional development through schemes like NITI Aayog’s Aspirational Districts Program, and increasing focus on backward regions to reduce disparities.	Promoting inter-cultural understanding, protection of minority languages, and celebrating diversity through national initiatives.

Seriousness of issue of regional disparity in India 

A report titled ‘Relative Economic Performance of Indian States: 1960-61 to 2023-24’ by Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (EAC-PM) has highlighted a significant disparity in the economic performance of Indian states

• The economic divide between northern and southern states – 5 Southern states have emerged as major contributors to India’s GDP, accounting for 30% by March 2024. On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh contributes only 9.5% of GDP and Bihar just 4.3%. 
• Industrial and connectivity Disparity: The Western and Southern regions have strong transport and logistics networks while northeastern states have poor connectivity.  
• Agrarian Crisis in regions like Vidarbha due to inadequate irrigation, lack of access to credit, and market fluctuations, where high rates of farmer suicides are reported, is a stark contrast to the agricultural prosperity found in Western Maharashtra.
• 
• Educational and Health Facilities: Kerala boasts a literacy rate of 96.2% and a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.79, one of the highest in India. Bihar, on the other hand, has a literacy rate of just 70.9% (Census 2011) and a high infant mortality rate (IMR) of 35 per 1,000 live births (SRS 2020), compared to Kerala’s IMR of 6.
• Insurgencies,demands for autonomy and regional unrest, particularly in states like Nagaland and Manipur, often stem from feelings of neglect and underdevelopment. 
• Migration Issues: The heavy influx of migrants from states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh to metropolitan cities such as Mumbai reflects economic desperation. Migrants often face precarious living conditions, limited access to services, and employment challenges, which can strain urban resources and infrastructure.

Impact of Regional Disparity

Human Geographist Sucheta Yadav in her article “The Problem of Regional Disparities: An Overview in Indian Context” noted- Regional imbalances lead to various consequences, including agitations for statehood, such as the movements for separate Vidarbha and Bodoland. Migration from backward to developed areas occurs in search of better livelihoods, while social unrest arises from disparities, exemplified by Naxalism. Urbanization causes housing shortages and pollution in metropolitan cities, while rural youth face frustration due to limited job opportunities. Accumulating wealth in developed regions further exacerbates these imbalances, leaving less developed areas behind.

Way forward 

1. Enhance Agricultural Investment, particularly in lagging regions, focusing on water harvesting, soil conservation, rural infrastructure, and high-value crops to stimulate economic growth and reduce disparities. Eg. need for evergreen revolution especially in backward states.
2. Prioritize Service Sector Growth: Promote the banking, insurance, and infrastructure sectors in backward regions, as they are vital for economic acceleration and can create job opportunities.
3. Upgrade Basic Infrastructure such as power, transport, telecommunications, and irrigation in underdeveloped states to enhance the quality of life and attract private investment. Eg. Bharatmala, promotion of renewable energy.
4. Revise Financial Resource Allocation: Shift the allocation formula for centrally collected resources to prioritize population size and backwardness indices, ensuring funds are directed toward the most disadvantaged districts rather than evenly distributed.
5. Focus on Governance Quality: Strengthen governance in backward states to improve revenue generation and project execution, thereby creating a conducive environment for attracting both domestic and foreign investments.

India’s regional diversity reveals significant disparities in development, emphasizing the need for inclusive growth strategies that honor its rich cultural tapestry while addressing economic inequalities across various regions.

A twister or tornado is a rotating column of air that forms from a thunderstorm and touches the ground, while over the sea it is known as a waterspout. Tornadoes are among the most violent and destructive natural phenomena, with wind speeds exceeding 300 km/h in extreme cases.

Characteristics of Twister

1. Funnel-Shaped Cloud extends from the thunderstorm to the ground, composed of condensed water, dust, and debris.
2. Rotating Winds that can reach speeds of 100 to 300 km/h, causing significant destruction.
3. Short Duration and Localized Impact: Twisters usually last only a few minutes to an hour and have a narrow path of destruction, affecting areas from a few meters to several kilometers wide.
4. Varied Intensity: Rated on the Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale from EF0 (weak) to EF5 (devastating), depending on wind speed and damage.
5. Associated with Thunderstorms: Tornadoes form in severe thunderstorms, particularly supercells, when warm and cold air masses collide.

Formation of Twisters

1. Warm and Cold Air Collision:This creates atmospheric instability and strong updrafts within a thunderstorm.
2. Thunderstorm Development: A supercell thunderstorm forms, with strong updrafts and downdrafts, creating conditions for rotation within the storm.
3. Wind shear (a change in wind direction and speed with height) causes the rising air to start spinning horizontally within the storm.
4. Vertical Tilt of Air Rotation: The updrafts within the storm tilt the horizontally rotating air vertically, forming a rotating column of air called a mesocyclone.
5. Tornado Formation: As the mesocyclone strengthens, a narrow funnel cloud forms. If the funnel cloud reaches the ground, it becomes a tornado or twister.
6. Touchdown: Once the rotating air makes contact with the ground, it starts picking up debris, creating the dangerous rotating vortex associated with tornadoes.

Why are the Majority of Twisters Observed in Areas Around the Gulf of Mexico

1. Proximity to Warm Ocean Waters: The Gulf of Mexico provides a constant source of warm, moist air, which is a critical factor in tornado formation.
2. Clash of Air Masses: This region frequently experiences the convergence of warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico and cold, dry air from the north (Canada), creating ideal conditions for severe thunderstorms and tornadoes.
3. Frequent Low-Pressure Systems: Low-pressure systems combined with wind shear (a difference in wind speed and direction at different altitudes), can lead to the development of tornadoes.
4. Hurricanes and Tropical Storms – tornadoes are a relatively common hazard produced by North Atlantic hurricanes, as 83% of hurricanes that made landfall along the Gulf of Mexico between 1950 and 2005 produced tornadoes 
5. Flat Terrain: The flat landscape of the central U.S. (known as Tornado Alley) allows for the unimpeded movement of these air masses, increasing the likelihood of tornado formation.
6. Jet stream patterns: The positioning of the jet stream in this region, especially during spring and early summer, enhances wind shear and atmospheric instability, further promoting tornado development.

Tornadoes are powerful natural disasters that can cause devastating destruction in minutes. Climate change is increasing their frequency and intensity by altering atmospheric conditions, threatening not only concentrated regions but also other countries, requiring countries to adhere to stricter climate goals to mitigate it.

Auroras are luminous phenomena that occur near the North (Aurora Borealis) and South Poles (Aurora Australis). They are caused by the interaction of charged particles from the Sun with the Earth’s magnetic field and atmosphere.

Aurora Borealis: Often called the Northern Lights, it occurs in the northern hemisphere, predominantly in regions near the Arctic Circle. This includes countries like Russia, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Canada, and Alaska.

Aurora Australis: Also known as the Southern Lights, it occurs in the Southern Hemisphere, primarily around the Antarctic Circle. It can be seen in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Antarctica, and parts of southern South America.

• 

Characteristic features of auroras

1. Timing and Frequency:  Auroras are most visible during winter and around the equinoxes, with increased activity during periods of high solar activity, such as solar storms or solar flares
2. Shapes and Movements: Both auroras exhibit a variety of shapes, including arcs, curtains, rays, and spirals. They often move and change shape rapidly due to interactions with Earth’s magnetic field.

Colors of Aurora

1. Altitude and Atmospheric Composition: Higher altitudes produce red glows from oxygen atoms, while lower altitudes result in the more common green-yellow hues.
2. Oxygen and Nitrogen: Oxygen atoms at lower altitudes produce the familiar green-yellow hues, while reddish and bluish light in the lower fringes of auroras is created by ions striking nitrogen atoms.
3. Rare Colors: Ions striking hydrogen and helium atoms can produce blue and purple auroras, but these colors are rarely visible to the human eye as they are outside the visible spectrum.

Trigger and Formation of auroras

1. Solar Wind Generation: This solar wind (primarily electrons and protons) is a result of the sun’s intense activity and consists of superheated gases.
2. Interaction with Earth’s Magnetic Field: Most of the solar wind is deflected, but some particles become trapped within the magnetosphere and are directed towards the magnetic poles.
3. Trapping in the Ionosphere: The trapped ions enter the ionosphere and accumulate in ring-shaped areas around the geomagnetic poles.
4. Collisions with Atmospheric Gases like oxygen and nitrogen and transfer of energy to these atoms resulting into light.
5. Colorful Displays: oxygen at lower altitudes produces green and yellow hues, while higher altitudes can emit red light. Nitrogen can create blue or purple shades.
6. Influence of Solar Activity: Geomagnetic storms, triggered by solar events like coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and solar flares, enhance auroral activity.  Eg- During periods of heightened solar activity, auroras can be seen further south than usual and can exhibit more vibrant colors.

Significance and importance of Auroras

1. Understanding Earth’s upper atmosphere, including its density, composition, flow speeds, and the strength of electrical currents flowing in the upper atmosphere.
2. Study of Solar Activity: Auroras are directly linked to solar activity, including solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs). Monitoring auroras can help predict and mitigate the effects of solar activity on technological infrastructure like satellites and GPS systems.
3. Cultural and Historical Importance: Auroras have been observed and revered by various cultures throughout history, often appearing in mythology and folklore. For example, the Inuit people believed auroras were the spirits of their ancestors.

Due to 4 strong Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) Aurora lights in red hues were visible from Ladakh on May 10th 2024.

Auroras are not only breathtaking natural phenomena but also help advance our understanding of Earth’s magnetosphere, solar activity, and the upper atmosphere, making them an essential subject of study.

As per “Interconnected Disaster Risks Report 2023” of the UN, Some areas in the Indo-Gangetic basin in India have already passed the groundwater depletion tipping point and its entire northwestern region is predicted to experience critically low groundwater availability by 2025. As per CGWA, groundwater storage levels in the Ganga basin have been declining by 2.6 centimeters per year.

Reasons for declining groundwater potential in gangetic valley 

1. Overextraction: Eg. CGWB noted rural areas in Gangetic Valley rely 70% on groundwater leading to unsustainable extraction rates.
2. Urbanization: has increased impermeable surfaces, reducing natural groundwater recharge and increasing runoff. Eg- As per Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB) data, city harvests only 10 percent of the rainwater while the rest 90 percent drains away wasted.
3. Pollution: Contamination from agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, and inadequate waste management reduces the quality and usability of groundwater resources. 
4. Land Use Changes: Modifications in land use, such as deforestation and conversion of land especially at Himalayan foothills for agriculture or urban development, disrupt the natural hydrological cycle and groundwater recharge processes.
5. Climate Change: Variability in precipitation patterns due to climate change affects the natural recharge of groundwater systems, leading to periods of both drought and flooding, which make rainfall unable to recharge groundwater.

Groundwater Decline Impact on food security 

1. Declining food production – Punjab and Haryana produce 50 percent of the country’s rice supply and 85 percent of its wheat stocks.
2. Declining food productivity: over 85% of Groundwater extracted is used for agriculture. Eg- 1-meter decline in groundwater from its long-term mean results in an approximately 8 percent reduction in food grain production.
3. Shift in Cropping Patterns – Shifting from traditional crops like wheat and rice to less water-demanding options, such as millets and pulses, may not meet India’s food demand, risking staple availability and increasing prices. 
4. Food Inflation – A decline in agricultural productivity due to groundwater depletion can lead to higher food prices, disproportionately affecting the poor and vulnerable populations, thus threatening food affordability.
5. Increased farm distress because of reduced groundwater availablity leading to crop failures, reduced farmer income and indebtedness, leading to depeasantization further impacting food production.
6. Land degradation and desertification due to overuse of groundwater which leads to alkaline and saline soil declining production of wheat and rice which are sensitive to alkalinity and over salinity. Eg. Lands of western UP, Haryana, Punjab 

Way Forward to Solve Groundwater Potential’s decline

 

1. micro- irrigation systems
2.  Mandatory permits and  Metering of groundwater usage
3. Zoning regulations: to control the density of borewells and establish ‘no-go’ zones
4. Implementation of Mihir Shah report (2016) which seeks to unify CGWB and Central Water commission to prepare a unified national level plan to manage groundwater extraction.
5.  Install water-efficient fixtures such as low-flow faucets, promote use of greywater recycling systems, and use treated water for non-potable purposes like irrigation and toilet flushing.

Best Practice Case Study Andhra Pradesh Farmer Managed Groundwater Systems (APFAMGS) project – led to a 20-30% reduction in groundwater extractionCommunity Led Springshed Management in Kumaon Region of Uttarakhand

The groundwater clock is ticking towards day zero. India needs a combination of strategy and investment to safeguard and revitalize the same.

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, beginning in the 18th century, transformed the country into an economic powerhouse. However, this progress came at the expense of India’s local industries, which faced stagnation due to the influx of cheap British goods and exploitative colonial policies.

Industrial revolution in Britain as responsible for decline of handicrafts and cottage industries in india

1. Cheap industrial goods: mass production of factory made textiles which were cheaper and are of higher quality, flooded the Indian market, making it difficult for Indian handmade textiles to compete. Eg. Famous Dacca muslin suffered heavily due to cheap British textiles flooded Indian markets.
2. Import of British goods favored due to British policies like high tariff on Indian made goods in England while there is duty free trade of British good into india.
3. Destruction of Traditional Economy: Indian weavers, artisans, and craftsmen lost their livelihoods as their traditional industries declined, leading to the collapse of the Indian cottage industries. eg. Indian silk and cotton made goods production hampered by British machine made products.
4. Shift in consumer preferences: as mass produced goods are available consumer preference shifted. Many people began to prefer the lower-priced, uniform products from factories over the unique but more expensive handicrafts.
5. Disruption of Traditional Skills: The rise of industrial production undermined traditional skills and practices. Artisans who relied on their crafts for livelihood found it increasingly difficult to maintain their trades in the face of industrial competition.

Other factors responsible for decline of handicrafts and cottage industries in India

1. Introduction of railways facilitated movement of British manufactured goods into rural markets, making these products more accessible and affordable than locally produced handicrafts. Historian Bipan Chandra noted that railways helped integrate colonial economies, often to the detriment of local industries.
2. Absence of Industrial Protection Policies: Unlike countries such as Germany and the United States, which implemented protectionist tariffs to nurture domestic industries, India under British rule lacked such policies. This absence left local artisans vulnerable to foreign competition.
3. Economic critique by Dadabhai Naoroji noted British exploitation of Indian resources had devastating effects on local industries. The enforced cultivation of cash crops, such as indigo in Bengal, redirected land and resources away from traditional agriculture and handicrafts, undermining local economies.
4. Effect of famines: British economic policies worsened famines like the Bengal Famine of 1770, causing millions to starve and local economies to collapse. Mahatma Gandhi argued that these famines stemmed from exploitative practices, devastating local industries and artisans.
5. Decline of Traditional Patronage: Historian Irfan Habib noted that the weakening of traditional power structures left many artisans without royal patronage and financial support, resulting in the deterioration of their crafts and skills.
6. Lack of Technological Advancement in India: The technological gap between British industries and Indian handicrafts was significant. The introduction of power looms and spinning jennies in British factories enabled mass textile production, which artisans could not compete with.

Efforts by nationalist and freedom fighter for revival of industries

1. Economic nationalism: Eg. swadeshi is used as symbol against oppression in Swadeshi Movement(1906) And Non Cooperation Movement(1921).
2. Educational initiatives – Eg. Tagore founded Shantiniketan in 1901.
3. Cottage Industries Movement: Eg. The All India Spinners’ Association, formed in 1938.

Although the Industrial Revolution in England hindered the growth of traditional industries in India, textile sector today contributes 2.3 % to the country’s GDP, 13% to industrial production and 12% to exports.

The First World War, often referred to as the Great War, was a worldwide conflict that spanned from 1914 to 1918. It involved numerous major powers and resulted in extensive loss of life and widespread destruction. A significant factor contributing to the war’s outbreak was the ambition to preserve the balance of power in Europe.

Preservation of balance of power as the reason for first world war

1. Formation of Alliances such as the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France, and Russia), was a strategic move to balance military strength in Europe. 
2. Germany’s rapid economic and military growth was perceived as a threat by other European powers, particularly Britain. The naval arms race between Britain and Germany exemplified this power struggle, escalating tensions that contributed to the outbreak of war.
3. Colonial Rivalries: Competition for colonies and global influence intensified rivalries among European nations. Incidents such as the Moroccan Crises (1905 and 1911) highlighted these tensions, as conflicts over African territories further strained relationships between France and Germany.
4. Austro-Hungarian and Russian Rivalry in the Balkans: The Bosnian Crisis of 1908, when Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, angered Russia and Serbia, exacerbating existing tensions in the Balkans. This rivalry played a crucial role in destabilizing the region and contributing to the war’s outbreak.
5. France’s Desire for Revenge: After losing Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War, France sought alliances with Russia and Britain to contain Germany’s growing power. This desire for revenge fueled France’s involvement in the conflict.
6. Preservation of Empires: The fear of losing imperial influence motivated British involvement, highlighting how imperial ambitions were intertwined with the balance of power considerations.

Other Reasons of First World War

1. Nationalism and ethnic tensions: rising nationalism in the Balkans and killing of Franz Ferdinand was rooted in serbian nationalism, which had less to do with European balance of power struggle. 
2. Economic rivalry,desire for market dominance and resource control particularly between Britain and Germany especially in Africa and Asia was also a key reason for world war.
3. Imperialism: war was essentially fought over retention and expansion of colonies. Scramble for Africa and control over Asian colonies led to long standing tensions between these imperial powers.
4. Militarism in pre pre-war environments like Germany’s Schlieffen Plan, which aimed for a rapid attack on France from Belgium. Arm race among European powers fostered an environment of distrust and war.
5. Diplomatic failures as initial alliances like the Franco-Russian alliance of 1894 created an environment of mistrust and escalated confrontations against germany.

While the First World War was primarily fought to preserve the balance of power, it was not the sole cause. Nationalism, imperialism, economic rivalry, and domestic pressures also played significant roles, making the balance of power a central but not exclusive factor in the conflict.

“The Cholas (9th–13th century CE), under great rulers like Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, were not just conquerors; they were also great patrons of art, whose temples and sculptures still stand as a testament to their artistic excellence.”

Achievements of Cholas in Art and architecture 

Temple architecture 

1. Boundary walls: Eg. Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram in Tamil Nadu.
2. Vimana: The vimanas rose above the sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha) of the temple in the form of a stepped pyramid that rises up linearly rather than curved. Eg- Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore has highest vimana of any temple.
3. Gopuram: The front wall had a high entrance gateway known as gopuram. Eg. Nageshwarswamy temple in Tamilnadu has one of the highest gopurams.
4. Shikhara: The crowning element is shaped like an octagon and is known as shikhara. Eg. Raja rajeswara temple has largest shikhara stone in the world.
5. Sculptures: The entrance of the garbhagriha had statues of Dwaarpal, Mithun and Yaksha. Eg. UNESCO site of Gangaikonda chola puram temple has  Some of the stone sculptures on the niches – Nataraja, Dakshinamurthy, Harahari, Lingodbhava, Vishnu, Brahma, Mahishasura Mardini, Gnana Saraswathi, Chandes anugraha murti

Painting

1. Medium: Eg. The walls of the Chola temples, such as the Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram temples, contain numerous icons of large size with fine execution.
2. Uniqueness: careful attention to facial expressions and hand gestures. eg. The painting of Rajaraja Chola I, listening to his preceptor Karuvur Devar.
3. Themes revolved around deities such as Shiva and Vishnu. 

Bronze sculptures

1. The image of Nataraja (Lord Shiva as the cosmic dancer) – This masterpiece is admired for its balance, grace, and artistic depth.

Achievements of Cholas in literature 

1. Patronage of Literature: advanced Tamil literature, fostering notable poets like Kalladanar, Kambana, and Avvaiyar.
2. Key Works: Kalladanar’s Kalladam celebrated Lord Shiva, while Thiruttakkadevar’s Seevagasinthamani introduced Jainism to Tamil audiences.
3. Sanskrit Influence: Despite the Chola rulers’ support for Sanskrit, original Tamil works thrived, with Kambana notably translating the Ramayana, enriching Tamil literature’s evolution

Bhakti movement under Cholas reign

1. Vaishnavite Alwars and Shaivite Nayanars got patronage under Chola Rulers.
2. In the beginning of 10th century a Nayanara saint Nambi-andar-nambi wrote a song which was named as ‘Tiruktatotar tiruvantati’ which produces a detailed information about the lives of the 63 Nayanara saints.
3. In 11th century Nambi-ander-nambi the court poet of Raja Raj Chola compiled the songs of the Nayanara saint in 11 Tirumurai. Which is considered to be one of the greatest text of Nayanara saints.
4. Tamil veda- Nalayira Divya prabandham composed by alwar poigai during Chola period.

Coinage of Cholas 

1. Standardized and culturally fine tuned coins – Coins minted in fine gold with potrait of king with his insignia or emblems like tiger and fish on one side and portrait of sitted goddess on other side.
2. Rajendra 1 Chola has issued one of most famous coins inscribing ‘ Gangaikonda chola’ after his victory in Bengal, on java and Sumatra islands.

Performing arts under Cholas

1. Classical dances like Bharatnatyam flourished during Chola period because of Devdasi system.
2. Cholas also patronized staff fencing marital art Silambam.
3. Rajaraja I  was instrumental in bringing back tevaram music to temples.
4. The representation of Nataraja or Adal Vallan (king of dance) in the form of the idol was the motif of Tamil music, dance and drama with hymns composed by Nayanmars. eg. Oduvars and Padikam Paduvars: They were appointed to sing in the temples to recite Thirumurai (The Saiva canon). 

Other Achievements of Cholas

1. Administrative Reforms: The Cholas decentralized administration, allowing local leaders and village assemblies (sabhas) to exercise autonomy. This allowed the empire to maintain control over vast territories while fostering strong local governance.
2. Military Conquests: They expanded their influence across the Indian Ocean, launching successful naval expeditions to Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and parts of Southeast Asia (e.g., Srivijaya in present-day Indonesia and Malaysia).
3. Trade and Economic Growth:Ports like Nagapattinam became thriving centers for international trade, with the Cholas exporting textiles, spices, and jewels.

The Chola dynasty may have faded from history, but their contributions to art and architecture endure as a symbol of India’s cultural and artistic zenith continuing to inspire pride and admiration, solidifying their eternal legacy in Indian history.