‘Narcoterrorism’ refers to the use of drug trafficking networks—routes, funding mechanisms, and

incomes—by terrorist organizations. According to the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB), more than 100 instances of drone incursions reported in the India-Pakistan border alone in 2023, with most carrying heroin and weapons meant for terrorists operating in India.

Narco-terrorism has emerged as a serious threat:

1. Strategic location:  Proximity to the Golden Crescent to the west and the Golden Triangle to the east 
2. As per International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) Annual Report 2023, nearly 40% of the world’s opiate users reside in South Asia. 
3. Use of Technology – Cyber-enabled drug markets, operating on the dark web and crypto-markets, are making illicit drugs more accessible than ever before.
4. Linkage with terrorist groups: 20-30% of drug smuggling operations in Jammu and Kashmir are estimated to be linked to groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) (IB Report).
5. Increased Smuggling through Coastal Routes: Eg-  seizure of 2,826 kg of drugs, comprising mostly heroin and cocaine, across India’s ports and coastal waters in 2023, the highest in 5 years.
6. Narcotics and Maoist Insurgency:  Maoist-linked drug operations are used to generate revenue for purchasing arms.
7. Use of Northeast India as a Transit Point: The porous borders of Northeast India, are used by insurgent groups like the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) for drug smuggling. 
8. Use of Advanced Smuggling Methods: use of drones and maritime routes to smuggle drugs into India, especially across the Punjab and Gujarat borders.
9. Collaboration with State Actors: Pakistani state agencies are reportedly involved in facilitating narcoterrorism by supporting cross-border drug trafficking that funds terrorism in India.

Measures to counter narco-terrorism:

1. Strengthening Border Security:Enhance surveillance and monitoring along borders using advanced technologies such as drones, sensors, and AI to detect and prevent narcoterrorism activities, particularly along the India-Pakistan and India-Myanmar borders.
2. Strengthening Law Enforcement and Intelligence: 

1. Ensure the strict enforcement of laws like the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985. 
2. Ensure seamless sharing of real-time intelligence between agencies like the Intelligence Bureau (IB), Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), and NCB

3. International Cooperation: Collaborate with Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Afghanistan through bilateral and multilateral platforms like SAARC and BIMSTEC.
4. Community-Level Interventions: Establish comprehensive drug rehabilitation and de-addiction centers, particularly in regions with high drug abuse rates like Punjab.
5. Targeting the Nexus between Crime and Terrorism: Strengthening UAPA and financial regulations such as PMLA to target financial linkages between drug traffickers and terrorist groups.

A failed state in the neighbourhood combined with narco-terrorism can have serious consequences for India’s security. A comprehensive risk-mitigation approach is imperative to safeguard India’s national security and secure a better and healthier future for its citizens.

“World today is economically richer & environmentally poorer the ever” 

The UN Department of Public Information (DPI) defines the NGO as “a not-for-profit, voluntary citizen’s group that is organized on a local, national or international level to address issues in support of the public good.” 

Role of environmental NGO’s:

• Raising Public Awareness and Participation- Eg- In projects like the Vedanta bauxite mining project in Odisha, activists and NGOs mobilized local tribal communities to participate in public consultations, eventually leading to the project being halted.
• Advocacy and Legal Interventions – Eg- Activist groups like Kalpavriksh and Vanashakti have filed PILs against infrastructure developments in ecologically sensitive areas like the Western Ghats.
• .
• Independent Review and Monitoring of EIAs – Eg- Greenpeace India highlighted deficiencies in the EIA process in Mundra Port and SEZ project.
• Pressure for Policy Reforms- Their efforts have led to amendments in EIA regulations, such as improvements in the public hearing process and better safeguards for sensitive ecosystems.
• Exposing Environmental Violations – Eg-  In the Sterlite copper plant case in Tamil Nadu, NGO activism exposed how the plant was operating without proper environmental clearances, leading to closure of the plant.
• Engaging with International Advocacy Networks including development finance institutions to ensure stricter compliance with international environmental standards.

Examples

1. Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA), led by social activist Medha Patkar. It raised concerns about the incomplete and flawed EIA, which did not fully assess the displacement of people or the ecological damage to the Narmada River ecosystem. While the dam was eventually built, NBA’s efforts ensured a greater focus on rehabilitation and resettlement policies.
2. Goa Foundation and Mining in Goa NGO/Activist Involved: filed petitions in the Supreme Court challenging the approval of mining leases based on inadequate and outdated EIAs. The NGO provided scientific data showing how large-scale illegal mining was leading to deforestation, loss of biodiversity, water pollution, and siltation of rivers, which affected agriculture and fisheries. In 2012, the Supreme Court imposed a ban on mining activities in Goa. 
3. Kalpavriksh and the POSCO Steel Plant Project in Odisha –  worked closely with local communities to highlight that the EIA did not address the full extent of forest clearance, water consumption, and pollution. The NGO submitted expert critiques to the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), pointing out deficiencies in the EIA process, including the lack of public consultations and ignoring of critical environmental impacts.  The MoEF revoked the forest clearance for the project in 2010. 
4. Himdhara and Hydropower Projects in Himachal PradeshNGO/Activist Involved: Himdhara conducted independent environmental impact assessments and highlighted issues such as improper evaluation of seismic risks, water flow changes, and the cumulative impacts of multiple hydropower projects on the river systems. As a result of their sustained efforts, the original design of the Luhri Hydroelectric Project was altered, reducing its capacity and minimizing environmental damage. 

Issues:

1. Organizational Issues – A survey by Indian Institute of Corporate Affairs (IICA) found that around 67% of small and medium-sized NGOs.
2. As per report by the Harvard Kennedy School the majority of NGOs in India don’t have Board for governance.
3. Regulatory Issues – Out of 3 million NGOs in the country, only about 175,000 of are registered on Niti Aayog’s Darpan portal.
4. Funding Constraints: Over dependence on government funding curtails their ability to hold government and administration accountable.
5. Security:  As per the Intelligence Bureau report, foreign-funded NGOs are acting as instruments for the foreign policy goals of Western governments. Their activism has led to reducing GDP growth by 2-3%.

Way Forward

1. 2nd ARC: set up an independent National Accreditation Council- to provide for the system of accreditation of voluntary organizations that seek funding from government agencies.
2. Vijay Kumar Committee Recommendations:  ‘Light regulation’ of NGO and  a separate law for voluntary agencies
3. Establishing a governing board enhances NGO governance.

NGOs are “integral cogs in the wheel of good governance”. A balanced partnership between genuine NGOs and the government is crucial for India’s progress.

As per CPCB report, 46 percent of the 603 Indian rivers are polluted based on indicator of organic pollution i.e. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (3mg/L) with the discharge of untreated industrial affluents as one of the major reasons.

Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue:

1. Impact river water quality:  According to the CPCB, the Ganges and Yamuna often exceed permissible limits for pollutants such as biological oxygen demand (BOD), fecal coliform, heavy metals, and other toxic substances.
2.  Impact on Aquatic Life:  High levels of toxicity in the Ganges has severely affected the population of the endangered Ganges river dolphin.
3.  Public Health Concerns: According to the World Bank, water pollution is responsible for around 1.5 million deaths annually in India due to preventable waterborne diseases.
4.  Socioeconomic Impacts: Irrigation with contaminated water affects crop quality and yields, Declining fish populations, and diminishing the aesthetic and cultural value of rivers that are vital to India’s heritage.

Mitigation Measures to deal with this problem:

1. Stringent Enforcement of Environmental Regulations: E.g. the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Environment Protection Act, 1986, which set standards for effluent discharge from industries.
2. Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs) and Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs): Mandating industries to set up on-site ETPs to treat wastewater before discharge into rivers. 
3. Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) Policy: Encouraging industries to adopt ZLD technologies, which ensure that all wastewater is treated and recycled within the plant.
4. Green Chemistry and Cleaner Production Techniques: This includes using environmentally friendly raw materials and energy-efficient processes to minimize the generation of pollutants at the source.
5. Riverbank Buffer Zones and Monitoring: Establishing buffer zones around rivers where industrial activities are restricted and setting up real-time water quality monitoring systems

Government Initiatives in this regard:

1. Namami Gange Programme: Over 150 sewage treatment plants (STPs) have been sanctioned under this program to improve the water quality of the Ganga.
2. National Water Mission: Under the National Action Plan on Climate Change, it focuses on water conservation, pollution reduction, and promoting efficient water use in industries.
3. National Green Tribunal (NGT): The NGT has mandated the closure of 123 industries for non-compliance with pollution standards in various river basins.
4. Pollution Control Boards (CPCB & SPCBs): Central and state pollution control boards regulate industrial discharges and set water quality standards. Regular inspections and pollution audits are conducted to ensure compliance.
5. River Rejuvenation Programs: The Narmada Seva Mission launched by the Madhya Pradesh government focuses on afforestation and pollution control to restore the Narmada River’s health.

Therefore, stronger enforcement and technological upgrades such as Denmark’s wastewater treatment model, can aid in mitigating the river pollution sustainably.

The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) had introduced RFID-based FASTag as the primary technology used for electronic toll collection (ETC) in 2014. In February 2021, the government made FASTags compulsory for all vehicles, ensuring a cashless and more efficient toll collection system across the country.

Advantages:

1. Reduced Congestion: ETC eliminates the need for vehicles to stop at toll booths, thus reducing traffic congestion. 
2. Reduced Waiting Time: Cuts down toll plaza congestion, saving up to 20 minutes per trip (MoRTH, 2022).
3. Faster Processing: The system automatically charges the toll, reducing the transaction time significantly compared to manual toll collection.
4. Lower Operational Costs: ETC requires fewer staff at toll booths, leading to cost savings for toll operators.
5. Better Revenue Collection: Automated systems reduce human error and the risk of cash leakage or fraud, ensuring better toll revenue management.
6. Environmental Benefits: Reduced idling time at toll booths results in lower emissions from vehicles, contributing to environmental conservation.

Limitations:

1. Technical Glitches: such as improper tag placement, reader malfunction, or weather conditions (e.g., heavy rain), leading to delays or disputes.
2. Inconsistent Implementation: Not all state highways have fully integrated FASTag lanes, which can be confusing for drivers traveling on mixed routes.
3. Network Dependency: FASTag is heavily reliant on internet connectivity for real-time transactions. Poor connectivity at certain toll plazas can lead to failed or delayed transactions.
4. Customer Support and Disputes: Some users have reported difficulties with resolving issues like incorrect toll deductions or recharging problems, pointing to the need for improved customer support infrastructure.
5. Double Charges for Manual Payments: Vehicles without a functional FASTag or insufficient balance are charged double the toll when paying in cash, which can be seen as punitive rather than encouraging for drivers still transitioning to the system.

Proposed changes to make the process seamless:

1. Transition to ANPR-Based Tolling: ANPR will allow vehicles to pass through toll plazas without any physical tag by capturing and recognizing license plates for automatic toll deduction.
2. Distance-Based Tolling (GNSS/GPS): Instead of paying at multiple toll plazas, vehicles would be charged based on the actual distance they travel on the highways. This system could eliminate the need for physical toll plazas altogether.
3. Integration with State Highways: Extending FASTag coverage to more state highways and city roads, ensuring that drivers can experience a fully seamless journey without switching between tolling systems.
4. Contactless and Mobile Payments: Enabling mobile apps for real-time toll payments or integrating FASTag with digital wallets and payment platforms (e.g., UPI, Paytm) for increased convenience.

Potential hazards of this transition:

1. Data Security Risks: Increased digitization raises the risk of cyber-attacks, where sensitive data like vehicle movements and financial details can be compromised.
2. Technical Glitches:  Any glitch in the RFID or GPS system could result in incorrect toll charges or unregistered toll crossings, leading to disputes.
3. System Downtime: Power failures or system crashes can disrupt the toll collection process, leading to traffic jams and user dissatisfaction.
4. High Cost leading to higher tax burden on citizens

Road transport carries around 87% of India’s passenger traffic and over 60% of India’s freight traffic hence seamless traffic management is essential for goal of $5 Trillion economy.

As per WIPO, Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions; literary and artistic works; designs; and symbols, names and images used in commerce. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) in the context of life materials, such as genetically modified organisms (GMOs), plant varieties, and biotechnological inventions, is a complex and ethically charged topic.

Present world scenario of IPR with respect to life materials:

1. International Legal Frameworks – Global agreements such as the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement under the World Trade Organization (WTO) provide a baseline for IPR protection, including life materials. 
2. Economic Contributions of Biotechnology:  The global biotechnology market is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 15.83%, reaching about $2.44 trillion by 2030. 
3. Global Patent Filings in Biotechnology:  According to the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), biotechnology patent applications represented about 13% of all global patent filings.
4. Impact of Biopiracy:  A study by the International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD) highlighted that up to 90% of traditional knowledge related to biodiversity remains unprotected globally, increasing the risk of exploitation.
5. Ethical Considerations and Public Perception:  According to a 2021 survey by the Pew Research Center, about 59% of respondents in developed countries expressed concern over the ethical implications of genetic engineering, which includes the patenting of life materials.

As per the Indian Patent Office, India filed about 65,000 patents in 2021-22, making it the second-highest filer of patents in the world, however only 5% of these lead to commercially viable products.

Reasons include:

1. Funding and Investment issues:  A report by NASSCOM indicated that Indian startups raised over $38 billion in funding in 2021, yet 40% of biotechnology startups cited access to capital as a primary barrier to commercialization.
2. Regulatory hurdles: According to Biotechnology Innovation Organization (BIO), about 55% of biotech companies reported that regulatory hurdles are significant barriers to bringing products to market.
3. Weak Industry-Academia Linkages:  Innovations in Indian research institutes like CSIR often don’t reach the market due to poor industry partnerships. Less than 10% of patents filed by institutions like IITs and CSIR are transferred to industries for commercialization.
4. Insufficient infrastructure – India’s technological and incubation infrastructure is inadequate to support startups and innovators.
5. Intense competition from global players: Despite having biosimilars like insulin and monoclonal antibodies, Biocon Ltd. faces intense competition from global players, leading to challenges in commercializing its innovations effectively.
6. Disputes over traditional knowledge: E.g. turmeric and neem tree patent controversy with U.S. companies. Though the patents were eventually revoked, it showcased the struggles in translating traditional knowledge into commercial applications.
7. Public Opposition: Innovations like GM seeds often face resistance, as seen in the Bt brinjal controversy in India.

Some key measures to strengthen commercialization include:

1. National Intellectual Property Rights Policy 2016 which aims to create a robust IPR ecosystem and promote innovation and entrepreneurship.
2. Establishment of Patent Facilitation Centers to provide guidance and support to inventors, especially small enterprises and startups.
3. Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) for providing funding and support for innovation hubs, and incubation centers.
4. Protection of traditional knowledge and biodiversity through the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL).
5. Revisiting the Drug and Clinical Trials Rules (2019) to expedite the approval process for new drugs and medical devices.

By strengthening the IPR framework and startup ecosystem India can realize the objective of VIKASIT BHARAT and KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY by 2047.          

In a country like India, where malnutrition, food insecurity, and lifestyle diseases coexist, millets, often termed “Nutri-cereals,” offer a powerful solution as they are not only nutritionally superior but also climate-resilient and environmentally sustainable. 

Role of millets in ensuring health security:

1. Diabetes Management:  The inclusion of FoxTail millet in the diet can improve glycemic control and insulin sensitivity in individuals with type 2 diabetes.
2. Cholesterol Management: Millets can help reduce levels of LDL (bad) cholesterol in the body, thereby lowering the risk of heart disease which is currently responsible for 28% of all the deaths in India..
3. Promotes Gut Health:  The high fiber content in millets acts as a probiotic thereby preventing gastrointestinal disorders such as constipation and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).
4. Bone Health Management: Finger millet (ragi) is particularly rich in calcium whose adequate intake helps prevent osteoporosis and promotes overall skeletal health.
5. Celiac Disease Management:  Millets are naturally gluten-free, making them an excellent choice for individuals with celiac disease or gluten sensitivity.

Role of millets in ensuring nutritional security:

1. Combat malnutrition through high nutrient density  – High Protein Content of about 10-15% protein, making them one of the richest sources of plant-based protein among cereals.
2. Alleviating hidden hunger: According to the World Health Organisation, nearly 30% of Indian women (15-49 years of age) suffer from iron deficiency anemia. Sorghum (jowar) which is rich in iron can help in combating anemia.
3. Addressing Vitamins and Minerals deficiency: Millets are a rich source of several B vitamins, including niacin (B3), riboflavin (B2), and folate (B9), which are crucial for energy metabolism and maintaining healthy skin, hair, and eyes.
4. Enhance dietary diversity: Offering an alternative to wheat and rice thereby improving upon agricultural and environmental sustainability as well.
5. Sustaining Small Farmers: Millets are a crucial crop for over 60% of small and marginal farmers in India, offering a reliable food source and livelihood in arid regions​

Government initiatives for promoting millets:

1. National Year of Millets 2018:  to revive traditional millet farming and raise awareness.
2. Renaming Millets as “Nutri-Cereals” and “Shree Anna”: to emphasize their high nutritional content.
3. State Specific Initiatives: E.g. Karnataka’s Raitha Siri Scheme aims at providing financial incentives to farmers for growing millets.
4. Millet-Based Products in Mid-Day Meal Scheme: Odisha has introduced millet-based recipes in school meals to provide better nutrition to children.

By focusing on both the demand and supply sides, India can significantly boost millet production, ensuring that millets become a staple in the Indian diet and a valuable export commodity.

Land reform refers to the systematic alteration of laws, regulations, and practices governing land ownership, distribution, and use to achieve social and economic justice. Despite being major policy initiative it has remained an ‘Unfinished Agenda’

Factors responsible for successful implementation in some parts of the country:

1. Political Will and Strong Leadership – In West Bengal, the Left Front government played a crucial role in redistributing land under Operation Barga, benefitting a large number of sharecroppers.
2. Ideological Commitment: In states with leftist governments, like West Bengal, the ideological focus on equity and social justice played a vital role. The political leadership viewed land reforms as a tool for addressing socio-economic disparities.
3. Effective Peasant Movements: The success of land reforms in states like Kerala and West Bengal was closely linked to grassroots peasant movements. Eg- Tebhaga Movement
4. Active Participation of Local Communities: The Bhoodan movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave in states like Maharashtra and Gujarat also played a role in redistributing land voluntarily from landowners to landless peasants, contributing to successful reforms.
5. Efficient Administrative Machinery – In Jammu and Kashmir, the administrative machinery was active in implementing the Big Landed Estates Abolition Act, which led to significant land redistribution.
6. Clear and unambiguous laws – In states like West Bengal, clear and stringent land ceiling laws prevented large landholders from retaining excess land. 
7. Judicial Support – Eg- In West Bengal, judicial decisions supported the protection of bargadars, ensuring the legal framework of the reforms was enforced even in cases where landlords tried to manipulate the system.
8. Decentralized Governance – The success of land reforms in West Bengal was partly due to the role of panchayats (village councils), which were empowered to help implement and monitor the redistribution of land.

However, some more challenges need to be addressed including:

1. The absence of adequate land records made implementation of these acts difficult.
2. Legal Loopholes – Eg- In Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madras there was no limit on the size of the lands that could be declared to be under the ‘personal cultivation’ of the zamindar
3. A large number of exemptions to the ceiling limits were permitted by most states. Eg- in most states the ceilings were imposed on individual and not family holdings, leading to dividing holdings in the names of relatives and Benami transfers to avoid the ceiling. 
4. CORRUPTION– The provisions to protect the small landowners were misused by the larger landlords and revenue officials as Most tenancies were oral and informal and not recorded.

Way Forward

1. Ashok Dalwai Committee Recommendations: reforms in land leasing, land titling, and creating a national land use policy to ensure sustainable agricultural practices and better land utilization.
2. Promoting Cooperative Farming on the AMUL Model: By pooling resources and collectively managing farms, farmers can achieve economies of scale, reduce costs, and increase productivity.
3. Private Sector Participation – Model Contract Farming Acts by States:
4. Digitisation of Land Records:
5. NITI Aayog’s Advocacy for Large-Scale Land Leasing
6. Presumptive Land Titling: Need to shift to Conclusive land titling as this can reduce land-related disputes which account for two-thirds of all pending court cases in India.

technology-assisted reforms such as the SWAMITVA scheme for clear land titles and the Digital India Land Record Modernisation Programme needs effective implementation.

As per data by RBI, in the period 2016-2020, the average food inflation was 2.9 percent. This has more than doubled in the 2020s to an average of 6.3 percent. It reached as high as 8.7 percent in April 2024.    

Causes of persistently high food inflation in India:

1. Supply and Demand Imbalances: Factors such as extreme weather events, crop failures, or pest infestations can reduce the supply of agricultural products, driving up prices. Conversely, a surge in demand, perhaps due to population growth or changes in consumer preferences, can also lead to higher prices if supply cannot keep up.
2. Temperature and Weather Challenges: Issues like adverse weather conditions, weak monsoons, and heatwaves led to cereal and pulse double-digit inflation in April 2024.
3. Fuel Price rise: An increase in fuel inflation by 1% leads to a 0.13% rise in food inflation, and the effect slowly declines through the next 12 months.
4. Post Harvest Losses: Approx 74 million tonnes of food is lost in India each year primarily due to inadequate storage and cold chain management further adding to food inflation.
5. Increase in input cost:  A report by the Fertilizer Association of India(2023) highlighted a 25% increase in fertilizer prices due to global supply chain issues.
6. Government Policies: E.g. Minimum Support Price leads to higher market prices for food grains and limits on stock holdings of essential commodities may lead to market speculation and artificial scarcity, spiking prices.
7. Trade Policies: Restrictions on imports can limit the variety of available food products and potentially drive up prices.

Effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation:

1. Inflation Targeting: By focusing on headline inflation, which includes food and fuel prices, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) can anchor inflation expectations and prevent food inflation from spiraling into general inflation
2. Indirect Impact of Interest Rate Adjustments on Food Inflation:  By adjusting the repo rate, the RBI influences liquidity in the market, which in turn affects consumer demand.
3. Exchange Rate Management and Imported Food Inflation: In 2021, global food prices surged, especially edible oils. The RBI’s management of the exchange rate helped soften the impact of these global price hikes on domestic food inflation, though not fully.
4. Transmission of Monetary Policy to Agricultural Sector Credit: Monetary easing during 2020-2021, which lowered interest rates, helped to maintain credit flow to the agricultural sector during the pandemic. 

However, Monetary policy faces certain limitations as:

1. Food inflation in India is often driven by supply-side factors, such as poor infrastructure (irrigation, roads, cold storage), inefficient distribution systems, hoarding, and agricultural productivity issues.
2. Seasonal fluctuations in food prices (driven by rainfall, crop output, and global food prices) often deviate from the general inflation trend.
3. Fiscal Policy Impact – Eg- Government providing higher MSP
4. Effectiveness also depends on external factors such as global commodity markets and oil prices, over which the RBI has limited control.
5. High Share of Food in Consumption Basket: In emerging economies like India, where food constitutes a large portion of household expenditure (around 45% or more), food inflation directly affects overall inflation, making it harder for monetary policy alone to control it​
6. Lagged Impact: Monetary policy actions like interest rate hikes may take several quarters to influence inflation. However, food price shocks tend to be more immediate, meaning that monetary policy adjustments may not be timely enough to prevent short-term inflation spikes​

Government Measures Complementing RBI’s Monetary Policy:

1. Improving agricultural infrastructure like irrigation, cold storage, and rural roads.
2. Price stabilization measures such as buffer stock management through the Food Corporation of India (FCI).

Therefore as noted by Reserve Bank of India “the persistence of food inflation underscores the need for effective policy measures that address both demand and supply dynamics.

Indian constitution envisions a welfare state under Article 38 of the constitution which is reflected in public expenditure on social services. In the post-reforms period the public expenditure on social services increased from 5.49% of GDP in 1990-91 to 8.3% in 2021-22.

Patterns and trends of public expenditure on social services:

1. From 1990s to Early 2000s: Marked slowdown in public spending – 

1. Education – 3% of GDP. 
2. Public healthcare –  1% of GDP.

2. From 2000s to Early 2009: Marked by re-prioritization of social spending Eg- Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) for education, National Health Mission (NHM), and MGNREGA.
3. 2010 onwards: Shift towards Rights based approach E.g., Right To Education, Right To Food, etc.

Consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth:

1. Rapid growth and poverty reduction:  A total of 415 million people moved out of poverty in India within just 15 years from 2005 to 2021. (UN)
2. Financial inclusion: Under PMJDY more than 53.13 crore bank accounts have been opened proving instrumental in Direct Benefit Transfer to the beneficiaries.
3. Education Accessibility: E.g. Gross Enrolment Ratio for girls at the secondary level rose from 77.45% in 2014-15 to 81.32% in 2019-20.
4. Improved Health Indicators: Health expenditure increases at cagr of 15.8%. (1.9% OF GDP IN FY24) – Life expectancy increased from 58 years in 1991 to 70 years in 2022.

However, Challenges remain in realizing the full extent:

1. High Levels of Poverty – NITI Aayog’s 2021 report estimated that around 25% of the population still lives in multidimensional poverty
2. Employment Generation and Jobless Growth – According to PLFS 2019-20, India’s unemployment rate was 4.8% and youth unemployment (15-29 years) was 22.9%.
3. Underinvestment in Social Infrastructure: According to a report by Dasra, social sector spending was ₹23 trillion ($280 billion) in FY23. It is less than NITI Aayog recommendation of 13% of GDP.
4. Regional Disparities in Development: As per ‘Relative Economic Performance of Indian States: 1960-61 to 2023-24’ by Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (EAC-PM), 5 Southern states have emerged as major contributors to India’s GDP, accounting for 30% by March 2024. On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh contributes only 9.5% of GDP and Bihar just 4.3%. 
5. Social Exclusion and Inequality Based on Caste, Gender etc: According to NITI Aayog’s 2021 Multidimensional Poverty Index, SCs and STs suffer more from multidimensional poverty and Female labor force participation in India is only 23.3% (PLFS 2019-20)

World Economic Forum has suggested 3 practical ways for countries to boost inclusive growth:

1. Investment in their citizens’ capabilities. e.g. Bolsa Familia – Brazil, provides financial aid to brazilian families ensuring children education, vaccination etc.
2. Labour Law Reforms – ensuring social security cover
3. Investment in labor intensive economic sectors including sustainable water, energy, digital, and transport infrastructure, rural economy, education and training.

Implementing Social Security Code 2020 can help achieve goal of instituting a credible social protection framework, consistent with India’s level of development.

As Prime Minister Narendra Modi said “India and the Maldives are not just neighbors; we are natural partners. Our destinies are intertwined, and we share the same vision of peace and prosperity.”  

Geopolitical and Geostrategic Importance of Maldives for India: Focus on Trade and Energy Flows

1. Strategic Location: Maldives’ position on key global maritime trade routes enhances India’s maritime domain awareness and security.
2. Energy Security: Located along key maritime routes between the Gulf of Aden and the Strait of Malacca, the Maldives serves as a critical “toll gate” for nearly half of India’s trade and 80% of its energy imports.
3. Regional Stability: Strong ties with the Maldives support India’s ‘Neighborhood First’ policy, ensuring political stability and minimizing external influences like China.
4. Countering China: India seeks to prevent the Maldives from falling into China’s Belt and Road Initiative debt trap, preserving regional dominance.
5. Trade Hub Potential: The Maldives can serve as a logistics and shipping hub, complementing India’s trade routes and boosting regional economic integration.
6. Maritime Surveillance: Geographic proximity aids India in enhancing surveillance and accessing deep-sea resources through joint projects, strengthening maritime security.
7. Defence Cooperation: A Defence Action Plan was signed in 2016 to strengthen this partnership. India provides nearly 70% of Maldives’ defence training, both on the islands and in India’s military academies.

Challenges

1. Growing Chinese Influence: Eg- China signed 20 “key” agreements, including on tourism cooperation, disaster risk reduction and the blue economy during visit of Xi Jinping.
2. Diplomatic Turmoil – undiplomatic words used by ministers in Maldives, President Muizzu asking India to withdraw military personnel and choosing China for one of his first overseas visits
3. Domestic politics – The ‘India Out’ campaign against the presence of the Indian military on Maldivian soil.
4. India’s security interests hinge on the Maldives’ political stability; internal turmoil could disrupt cooperation and threaten maritime security objectives.
5. Non-traditional threats: Piracy, terrorism, and drug trafficking require ongoing collaboration and intelligence sharing between India and the Maldives.
6. Extremism: The Maldives’ susceptibility to extremism and radicalization demands joint efforts to counter these security challenges.

Way forward

1. Promote Non-Reciprocal Development Assistance to counter  ‘Big Brother Perception: Building on the principles of the Munroe Doctrine, India should focus on providing nonreciprocal, consultative, and cooperative development assistance to the Maldives. ‘
2. Enhance Maritime Security Collaboration including joint naval exercises, surveillance operations, and information sharing. 
3. Engage in Cultural and People-to-People Exchanges: Programs that promote tourism, student exchanges, and cultural initiatives will help build mutual understanding and strengthen bilateral relations.
4. Address Domestic Political Dynamics: India should be sensitive to the internal political landscape of the Maldives, engaging with all political factions and civil society groups to ensure broad-based support for its initiatives. 

Sustained Diplomacy and strengthening People to People connect is essential to build trust and align  ‘Neighbourhood First’ policy with the Maldive’s ‘India First’ policy.

Terrorism is the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives. Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) was established under UNSC resolution 1373 to enhance the capacity of UN member states to prevent and combat terrorism.

Terrorism A Significant Threat To Global Peace And Security

1. Impact on Global and Local Economies: Eg.  2008 Mumbai attacks resulted in a decline in foreign investments and tourism, costing the Indian economy over $2 billion.
2. Political Instability: The rise of ISIS in Syria and Iraq led to the displacement of over 10 million people and destabilized the Middle East.
3. Social Cohesion Challenges: Eg. 2019 Christchurch attacks in New Zealand highlighted how extremism disrupts harmony by fueling religious and ethnic tensions.
4. Radicalization: Eg. ISIS, through social media, recruited over 30,000 foreign fighters from more than 100 countries.
5. Human Rights Violations: Eg. Boko Haram in Nigeria has killed over 37,500 people since 2009, with mass abductions and attacks targeting civilians, violating fundamental human rights.

Effectiveness of the UN Security Council’s Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) and Associated Bodies:

1. Helps in Development of Legal Frameworks: The CTC assists in implementing Resolution 1373, which mandates states to criminalize terrorism financing and secure borders. Countries have adapted their laws, including freezing assets linked to terrorism.
2. Promotes International Collaboration: The CTC fosters cooperation between nations to combat terrorism, ensuring shared intelligence and joint operations, especially in high-risk regions like Southeast Asia and the Sahel.
3. Assists Nations via Capacity Building: Training programs, such as in the Sahel region, help local forces combat terrorist threats through specialized skills and counter-terrorism techniques.
4. Enforces Sanction Measures: CTC oversees the implementation of sanctions like travel bans and arms embargoes, ensuring compliance with UN Security Council mandates against terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda.
5. Ensures Monitoring and Compliance: The CTC monitors national compliance through regular state reports, ensuring nations align with international anti-terrorism laws and obligations. Eg. recent follow up visit by CTC in Tanzania to check compliance on counterterrorism resolution.
6. Targets Terrorist Financial Networks: The CTC collaborates with organizations like the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) to combat money laundering and dismantle financial networks that support terrorism.

Challenges Faced by UNSC CTC in Counter-Terrorism:

1. Political Interests and Sovereignty Issues: Disagreements among member states, such as vetoes by Russia and China regarding resolutions on Syria, hinder unified responses..
2. Disparities and Resource Limitations: E Eg. Global Terrorism Index 2022 indicated that terrorism caused $8.6 trillion in economic losses globally, disproportionately affecting less developed nations.
3. Balancing Security with Individual Rights: Surveillance measures, like those under the UAPA,AFSPA in India, USA’s PATRIOT Act, often infringe on civil liberties. A 2021 Pew Research survey found that 56% of Americans are concerned about government overreach in surveillance.
4. Rapid Technological Changes: The use of encrypted communication, as seen in the 2015 Paris attacks, allows terrorists to coordinate while evading detection. 
5. Implementation Gaps: A 2023 review by the committee highlighted that 80 countries reported insufficient resources to enforce effective strategies.

To effectively combat terrorism globally, a multi-pronged approach is essential, focusing on socio-economic development, responsive governance, and a unified Trident Strategy combining strong political will, proactive measures, and strategic communication to counter terrorist influence.

The World Bank defines e-governance as the use by government agencies of information technologies (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and mobile computing) that can transform relations with citizens, businesses, and other arms of government.”

Application of digital technology in service delivery process

e-Governance being multifarious interactions for ensuring transparency and accountability

1. Enhancing Public Access: E-governance platforms facilitate easy access to information, promoting transparency in government processes such as budgeting and tendering. 
2. Preventing Corruption: Digital records and traceable transactions significantly reduce opportunities for corruption by minimizing human interaction. 
3. Citizen Feedback Mechanisms: Interactive features, such as CPGRAMS, empower citizens to file complaints and track resolutions.
4. Auditable Transactions: Eg. Performance dashboards, such as the Swachh Bharat Mission dashboard, provide real-time data on initiatives like toilet construction, ensuring accountability through traceability.
5. Standardized Processes: E-governance standardizes workflows across departments, enhancing fairness in implementing government schemes. Eg. Social audit tools, like the Social Audit Network of India (SANI).

Interactive service model of e-governance

The Interactive-Service Model is the pinnacle of e-governance, where two-way communication between the government and citizens is not just possible but encouraged. 

Role of the Interactive Service Model of e-governance:

1. Enhanced Citizen Engagement:  Platforms like MyGov and town hall forums, allowing them to provide feedback and suggestions 
2. Improved Service Delivery:  Digital India Portal ensures streamlined and accessible services such as passport renewals and tax filings
3. Accountability through Feedback Mechanisms: Platforms like CPGRAMS, enable citizens to lodge complaints and track their resolution.
4. Customization of Services: As seen in the UMANG app, which tailors services based on user interactions and preferences.
5. Digital Democracy: Through participatory platforms like online consultations, surveys, and digital town halls, the interactive service model fosters a more inclusive and transparent form of governance.

Issues with the Interactive Service Model of E-Governance

1. Digital Divide: Over 60% of rural Indians lack internet access, hindering their ability to benefit from e-governance services, thereby widening the gap between urban and rural populations.
2. Data Privacy Concerns: The Aadhaar system, with over 1.3 billion enrolled, has faced criticism for potential misuse of personal data, raising significant privacy issues and public distrust.
3. Dependency on Technology: Reliance on technology can lead to service disruptions; for instance, during the 2020 lockdown, many citizens faced difficulties accessing essential services due to tech failures.
4. Cybersecurity Risks: In 2020, cyberattacks on government systems increased by 37%, threatening sensitive citizen data and critical operations, highlighting vulnerabilities in e-governance frameworks.
5. Bureaucratic Resistance: A 2021 survey by NITI Aayog found that 40% of government officials reported inadequate digital literacy, obstructing the implementation of e-governance initiatives and leading to inefficiencies.
6. Resource Intensive: Many state governments struggle with budget constraints; eg. only 20% of Indian states have allocated sufficient funds for developing robust e-governance infrastructure.
7. Equity and Inclusion: E-governance may exacerbate inequalities; as only 25% of women in rural areas use online services, limiting their access to vital resources and information.

E-governance is inclusive of e-Democracy, e-Government and e-Business. Government Process Re-engineering using IT is critical for realisation of Viksit Bharat and New india.

Healthcare is a fundamental right crucial for individual dignity and welfare. Article 47 of the Indian Constitution highlights the State’s responsibility to ensure public health, affirming the commitment to provide equitable access to healthcare for all citizens.

Adverse impact of marketisation of healthcare system 

1. Inequity in access: creates a dual healthcare system where wealthy individuals can access, afford and avail healthcare, while the poor rely on underfunded public healthcare.
2. Rural-urban divide as only 30% healthcare infrastructure serves 70% rural population, leaving rural areas underserved.
3. Rising cost and affordability: Eg. 47.1% of total healthcare spending in India is out-of-pocket expenditure (National Health Accounts 2019-2020).
4. Commodification of Healthcare: Eg. doctors prescribing unnecessary tests and medicines just to increase profit.
5. Limited Focus on Preventive Care: Market-driven systems prioritize curative care over preventive measures, leading to under-investment in public health.

Role of state in containing marketisation of healthcare 

1. Regulation of Healthcare Costs: The state can cap treatment prices, regulate drug prices (e.g., India’s National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority), and ensure that essential medicines remain affordable.
2. Strengthening Public Healthcare: The government can expand and improve public health infrastructure to provide low-cost or free services, reducing dependency on private healthcare providers.
3. Universal Healthcare Schemes: Programs like Ayushman Bharat in India help reduce out-of-pocket expenses for poor citizens by providing free access to essential health services.
4. Health Insurance Regulation: The state can ensure that private health insurance schemes are affordable, transparent, and provide adequate coverage without discrimination or exploitation.
5. Public Health Campaigns: The state plays a key role in promoting preventive healthcare, vaccination drives, and awareness programs to reduce the burden of disease and reliance on expensive treatments.
6. Subsidizing Essential Health Services
   1. The government should provide subsidies for essential drugs and healthcare services to make them more affordable for the general public. Eg. Jan Aushadhi Stores
   2. Provide free preventive healthcare services such as immunizations, maternal and child care, and routine health checkups to reduce out-of-pocket expenditure.

Measures to Enhance Public Healthcare at the Grassroots Level

1. Decentralization of Healthcare Governance: Empower local governing bodies like Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and urban local bodies to take charge of healthcare delivery at the local level. This would ensure more responsive and need-based healthcare.
2. Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): NITI Aayog in its report ‘Reimagining Healthcare In India Through Blended Finance’ Encouraged  partnerships between the government and private healthcare providers for the supply of healthcare equipment, medicines, and mobile health units in rural areas.
3. Health Education and Community Participation: Launch health literacy programs and engage local communities in healthcare planning by forming village health committees to monitor programs. Eg. ASHA and Anganwadi workers can be leveraged.
4. Increased Budget Allocation for Public Health to improve infrastructure, recruit more healthcare workers, and ensure the continuous supply of medicines. Allocate funds specifically for underserved areas, ensuring equitable distribution of healthcare resources across the country.
5. Focus on Preventive Healthcare:  Prioritize preventive healthcare measures, such as improving sanitation, clean drinking water access, and widespread vaccination campaigns.
6. Implement nutrition programs targeting maternal health and child development to reduce the incidence of malnutrition and related diseases.
7. Technological Integration: Use telemedicine, mobile health apps, and electronic health records to enhance remote care access and continuity. Eg: Practo, eSanjeevani.

As the saying goes, “Health is wealth, not wealth in health,” emphasizing the importance of accessible health care. By focusing on public investment and community health initiatives, the state can ensure health remains a fundamental right, not a commodity.

As per 2nd ARC, Citizen Charter is a public statement that defines the entitlements of citizens to a specific service, the standards of the service, the conditions to be met by users, and the remedies available to the latter in case of non-compliance of standards. Adopted in 1997 in India, citizen charter still to realize it’s full potential.

Importance Of Citizens Charter In Ensuring Citizen Centric Administration 

Factors Hindering Realization Of Full Potential Of Citizens Charter 

1. One size fits all: Tendency to have a uniform CC for all offices under the parent organization. CC has still not been adopted by all Ministries/Departments. This overlooks local issues.
2. Silo operations: Devoid of participative mechanisms in a majority of cases, not formulated through a consultative process with cutting edge staff who will finally implement it.
3. Lack of Legal Enforcement: Citizen Charters aren’t legally binding, which limits accountability.
4. Non-Dynamic: Charters are rarely updated making it a one-time exercise, frozen in time.
5. Poor design and content: lack of meaningful and succinct CC, absence of critical information that end-users need to hold agencies accountable.
6. Lack of public awareness: only a small percentage of end-users are aware of the commitments made in the CC since effective efforts of communicating and educating the public about the standards of delivery promise have not been undertaken.
7. Stakeholders not consulted: End-users, Civil society organizations and NGOs are not consulted when CCs are drafted. Since a CC’s primary purpose is to make public service delivery more citizen-centric, consultation with stakeholders is a must.
8. Measurable standards of delivery are rarely defined: making it difficult to assess whether the desired level of service has been achieved or not.
9. Poor adherence: little interest shown by the organizations in adhering to their CC. since there is no citizen friendly mechanism to compensate the citizen if the organization defaults.

Measures required (2nd ARC recommendations)

1. Customized Charters: Citizens’ Charters should be tailored to specific organizations preferably in local languages rather than adopting a one-size-fits-all approach, ensuring relevance to local contexts and needs.
2. Stakeholder Consultation: The formulation of charters must involve extensive consultations with all stakeholders, including citizens, NGOs and other civil society, to ensure that the charters reflect genuine needs and expectations.
3. Clear Commitments should be specified regarding service delivery standards and outline remedies or compensations for failures in service provision, enhancing accountability.
4. Regular Evaluation by independent agencies, to assess their effectiveness and ensure they remain relevant and impactful.
5. Adoption of the Sevottam Model: The Sevottam model was suggested by the 2nd ARC in its 12th report on “Citizen Centric Administration”.  This model combines the principles of ‘service’ and ‘uttam’ (excellence) and outlines a systematic approach:
   1. Defining services and identifying clients.
   2. Setting standards and norms for each service.
   3. Developing capabilities to meet these standards.
   4. Performing services to achieve the standards.
   5. Monitoring and evaluating performance continuously.
   6. Implementing continuous improvements based on evaluations.

The Citizens’ Charter is a commitment to service quality, transparency, and accountability, promoting responsive governance. Reviving this program in government departments is essential for ensuring accountability to both citizens and the organizations themselves.

Secularism is a principle that advocates the separation of religion from politics and governance. It seeks to
establish a society where religious institutions and state institutions are independent of each other.

India As A Secular State

1. Constitutional Guarantee of Secularism:
   a. Equality before Law: All citizens, irrespective of their religion, are treated equally before the law (Article
   14).
   b. Articles 25-28 guarantee freedom of religion, allowing individuals to practice, profess, and propagate
   their faith freely.
   c. Religious and linguistic minorities have the right to preserve their culture and establish educational
   institutions (Article 30).
2. Pluralistic Society with Equal Religious Representation: India’s inclusive secularism celebrates diverse religious festivals, exemplifying Rajeev Bhargava’s idea of “equal respect for all religions,” unlike the Western
   model of strict separation.
3. Judicial Interventions Upholding Secularism – SC in S.R. Bommai Judgment has held Secularism as a Basic
   Feature of the Constitution
4. Positive Model of Secularism
   a. India’s secularism permits personal laws for different religious communities, enabling autonomy in
   marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Eg- Muslim Personal Law.
   b. State Support for Religious and Cultural Practices: Eg. subsidies for the Hajj pilgrimage for Muslims,
   financial support for Hindu pilgrimages, and Sikh langars.

Dilution Of Secularism In India

1. Communal Violence and Polarisation: NCRB Report (2021) recorded more than 5,000 cases of communal
   riots between 2017 and 2021. Eg. The Nuh violence in Haryana in 2023.
2. Use of hate speech and narrative of “us vs them” during election campaigns has contributed to religious
   polarization, with leaders making divisive statements to appeal to specific communities.
3. Mob Lynching and Vigilantism: Incidents of mob lynching, especially targeting minority communities under
   the guise of cow protection or other religious sentiments, have risen. Eg. Recently a man beaten in train
   for carrying beef, sadhu lynching in palghar.
4. Social exclusion based on religious identity – Eg. A 2021 Pew Research Center report found 64% of Indians identify as “Hindus first” rather than “Indians first,” illustrating the rise of religious nationalism. Eg- boycott on Muslim vendors in temple fairs in Karnataka (2022).
5. Challenges in Implementing Secular Principles: A 2019 Lokniti-CSDS survey found significant opposition to the Uniform Civil Code: 55% of Muslims, 54% of Christians, and 40% of Hindus, highlighting the challenge of achieving consensus on secular reforms.

Comparison Of Secular Provisions Between Indian And Us Constitution

Similarities

1. Constitutional Enshrinement: U.S. Constitution’s First Amendment prohibits Congress from establishing
   a religion, while India’s 42nd Amendment explicitly includes “secular” in Preamble, affirming the state’s
   neutrality towards all religions.
2. Freedom of Religion: U.S. First Amendment guarantees free exercise of religion, paralleling Articles 25-28
   of the Indian Constitution, which protect individuals’ rights to profess, practice, and propagate their faith
   without state interference.
3. Judiciary’s Role: Landmark cases like Engel v. Vitale (1962) in U.S. and S. R Bommai case in India ensured
   judicial protection of these principles.

Secularism and Harmony is not “political fashion” but it is “perfect passion” for India and Indians. Thus, Upholding secular values, fostering interfaith dialogue, and promoting inclusive policies are crucial for maintaining a pluralistic society and strengthening the fabric of Indian democracy.

The Supreme Court has defined Public Interest Litigation (PIL) as “a legal action initiated in a court of law for the enforcement of public interest or general interest in which the public or a class of the community have pecuniary interest or some interest by which their legal rights or liabilities are affected.” As per SC observer Data, on an average, the Court receives 26,379 PILs every year.

Reasons for growth of PIL in India 

1. Relaxation of Locus Standi in Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar (1979), which focused on the inhuman conditions of under-trial prisoners, laid the foundation for broader access to justice.
2. Judicial Activism: Judges like P.N. Bhagwati and V.R. Krishna Iyer promoted PILs as a vehicle for ensuring fundamental rights as enshrined under Article 32 and way to address grievances related to social and economic injustice. 
3. Access to Justice: PILs made it easier for marginalized and disadvantaged sections of society to approach the courts.
4. Societal Concerns: Issues such as environmental degradation, human rights violations, and corruption became areas where citizens could seek judicial intervention, pushing PIL cases to the forefront. Eg- MC Mehta Case
5. Media Attention: Media coverage of PIL cases has increased public awareness, making the judiciary a platform for addressing wide-ranging societal problems.
6. Executive and Legislative Inaction: PILs grew due to perceived inefficiencies or failures of the executive and legislative branches in addressing important social and political issues. Eg- PIL on Paper Leak

Supreme Court as the World’s Most Powerful Judiciary 

Arguments in Favor:

1.  Upendra Baxi, opines PIL has transformed Indian judiciary into an “institution of governance,” taking on functions traditionally vested in the executive and legislative branches.
2. Judicial Activism: Through Public Interest Litigations (PILs), the Indian Supreme Court has actively addressed key social and political issues, such as the right to privacy (Puttaswamy judgment) and environmental protections. 
3. Expansive Interpretation of Rights: It has broadened the interpretation of fundamental rights under Article 21, impacting areas like health, education, and environmental rights.
4. Judicial Review: The Court exercises powerful judicial review, overturning executive and legislative decisions. Eg- NJAC Judgment
5. Intervention in Policy Matters: The Court has played a direct role in governance by issuing landmark judgments on policy issues like environmental regulations (Taj Mahal pollution case) and human rights (Vishakha guidelines for sexual harassment).
6. Suo Motu Powers: The Supreme Court can take cognizance of cases on its own, further extending its reach and influence.

Argument Against

1. Overreach: The Court’s decision to interfere in policy issues like setting the height of the Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel statue drew criticism for stepping into areas best left to the executive.
2. Inefficiency and Delays: As of 2023, the Indian judiciary had a backlog of over 4.7 crore cases, including in the Supreme Court, leading to delays in delivering justice.
3. Inconsistent Decision-Making: In cases like Sabarimala Temple Entry (2018), where religious rights were pitted against gender equality, the Court’s rulings led to divided public opinion and later contradictions, illustrating inconsistency.
4. Criticism of Policy Interference: The Supreme Court’s intervention in BCCI reforms (Lodha Committee case) raised concerns that it was overstepping into the domain of sports administration, traditionally a non-judicial area.
5. Lack of implementation of court verdicts hinder the successful implementation of PIL.

Way Forward

1. Striking a balance between legitimate cases and frivolous cases: Scrutiny panel or special PIL cells can be set up for scrutiny at first stage.
2. Provision of strict punishment for frivolous PILs.
3. Court should be fully satisfied that substantial public interest is involved before entertaining the petition.

Justice P.N. Bhagwati thus cautioned that PIL must not degenerate into “publicity or private interest litigation”. By striking balance between ensuring access to justice and preventing misuse, PIL can become crucial tool for upholding the rule of law and protecting the rights of marginalized and vulnerable citizens..

“Indian Union is a unitary state with subsidiary federal features rather than a federal state with subsidiary unitary features.”  – K.C. Wheare. 

Centre-State relations in India are governed by constitutional provisions outlined in Articles 245 to 263, which detail legislative, administrative, and financial relations. 

Changes introduced by union government in the domain of centre-state relations 

1. GST Compensation Extension: The government extended the compensation cess for states under the Goods and Services Tax (GST) system to support state finances post-pandemic.
2. Changes in Financial Relations: Recommendations of 15th Finance Commission were implemented, with a focus on reducing the share of states in central taxes, which some states perceived as diminishing their fiscal autonomy.
3. Strengthening role of NITI Aayog in facilitating cooperative federalism and collaborative decision-making between the Centre and States. Eg: NITI Aayog has conducted workshops with State governments to develop tailored strategies for achieving SDGs.
4. National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 sets national framework for education. However, Some states expressed concerns over uniform national policy that may not consider regional and linguistic diversity, thereby affecting state autonomy in framing educational policies.
5. Disaster Response Funds: Enhanced flexibility given to states in using the SDRF for specific local disasters, post the COVID-19 pandemic.
6. Greater Centralization of powers – Epidemic Diseases Act and Essential Commodities Act dueing COVID
7. River Water Disputes Amendment Bill (2019): This bill aims to streamline the adjudication process for interstate river disputes, empowering the Centre to establish a Dispute Resolution Committee and reducing the time frame for resolution.

Issues

Measures To Build Trust Between Centre And State And Strengthening Federalism.

1. Strengthening Inter-State Council with Regular meetings and enhanced powers can facilitate dialogue and resolve disputes, promoting cooperative federalism. Eg: The revival of the Inter-State Council in 2016 after a decade showed potential for proactive issue resolution.
2. Impartial Role of Governors – Eg: Recommendations from the Sarkaria and Punchhi Commissions to ensure Governors are not seen as central agents.
3. State Involvement in National Policies especially those impacting concurrent and state lists, ensures policies reflect regional needs. Eg: Joint committees for policy areas like agriculture and education to ensure state-specific concerns are addressed.
4. Punchhi commission recommended binding consent of state during central legislations from concurrent list.
5. Cooperative Federalism Projects: Initiatives like Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat encourage cultural and educational exchanges between states and centre and particular state, helpful in building trust.
6. Judicial Precedents on Federal Balance: Upholding S.R. Bommai vs Union of India judgment, reinforces state sovereignty and safeguards against arbitrary central dominance.

As B. R. Ambedkar rightly said, “Federalism is critical for the unity of India; it accommodates the country’s diversity and allows states to flourish within the national framework.” 

In K. S. Puttaswamy Judgment, the nine Judge Bench in this case unanimously reaffirmed the right to privacy as a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution of India. The judgment overturned previous rulings such as the MP Sharma and Kharak Singh cases, which had rejected privacy as a fundamental right. Privacy includes bodily integrity, informational privacy, and personal autonomy.

Right to privacy as intrinsic to life and personal liberty

1. Basic Fundamental Right– Article 12 of the UDHR and Article 17 of the ICCPR provide legal protection to persons against ‘arbitrary interference’ with one’s privacy, family, correspondence, home, reputation, and honour.
2. As Justice D.Y. Chandrachud noted, “Privacy is essential to the exercise of individual freedoms, and allowing people to make personal choices without fear of external judgment or coercion.
3. Protection from Arbitrary State Action and ensures accountability in governance. Eg- invalidation of Section 66A of IT Act.
4. Test for Privacy Infringement: Any restriction on the right to privacy must meet the threefold test established by the Court:
   1. Legality: There must be a law justifying the interference.
   2. Legitimate Aim: The law should promote a legitimate state interest.
   3. Proportionality: The interference must be proportional to the need to achieve the objective.
5. Impact on Laws: The ruling influenced the formulation of data protection laws, leading to the development of the Personal Data Protection Bill and shaping the debate on issues like the Aadhaar program.

Dna Testing Law And Right To Privacy-

Legal Framework for DNA Testing

1. The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971: regulates abortion in India and includes provisions for DNA testing in the context of prenatal diagnosis.
2. The Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994: regulates the use of DNA testing for genetic disorders, ensuring that such tests are conducted ethically and legally.
3. The Indian Evidence Act, 1872: Section 45,112 of this act allows for the admissibility of expert opinions, including DNA testing results, in legal proceedings
4. DNA Technology Regulation Bill
5. Guidelines from the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)

Justification for providing DNA testing 

1. Legal Clarity: DNA testing provides accurate scientific evidence to establish paternity, which can resolve legal disputes related to inheritance, custody, or support claims.
2. Judicial Rulings on Paternity Testing: Courts have increasingly used DNA testing in paternity disputes. Eg. in Dipanwita Roy vs. Ronobroto Roy (2014)
3. Child’s Right to Know and Identity: The Supreme Court upheld a child’s right to know their parentage under Article 21. 
4. Ensuring Fair Justice: DNA testing can help in delivering justice in cases of adultery, marital disputes, or allegations of paternity fraud
5. Preventing Misuse: Regulating DNA testing helps prevent sex-selective abortions and discrimination, promoting the rights and equality of unborn children.

Ethical Concerns in Fetal DNA Testing

1. Informed Consent: The mother’s consent must be voluntary, without coercion, with full disclosure of risks to both mother and child.
2. Intrusion into Bodily Autonomy: Forcing a woman to undergo DNA testing during pregnancy may infringe on her bodily autonomy and decision-making rights over medical procedures.
3. Social Stigma: In certain cultural contexts, paternity testing may expose sensitive family matters, leading to social stigma for the mother, child, or family.
4. Potential Harm: Invasive tests like amniocentesis or CVS carry risks to the fetus and should only be used when necessary, with non-invasive methods preferred.
5. Privacy and Data Protection: DNA data must be securely handled to protect both mother and child, preventing misuse that could lead to future stigmatization or discrimination.

In Bhabani Prasad Jena vs. Orissa State Commission for Women (2010), the court emphasized the need to balance DNA testing with personal dignity and privacy, especially regarding pregnant women.

The recent NEET-UG 2024 exam paper leak has put the question mark on integrity of examination system in India. The Public Examinations (Prevention of Unfair Means) Act, 2024 , which was passed by the Indian Parliament to “to curb paper leaks, malpractices, as well as organised malpractices in recruitment examinations like UPSC, SSC etc and entrance tests such as NEET, JEE and CUET.

Aims and Objectives of the Act:

1. Ensuring Examination Integrity: To maintain the fairness of public examinations by curbing malpractices such as cheating and impersonation.
2. Strengthening Accountability: To ensure that candidates, examination staff, and invigilators are held accountable for maintaining examination standards.
3. Deterring Unfair Practices: To establish strict legal consequences to deter individuals and organized groups from engaging in malpractice. Eg. vyapam scam, CBSE paper leak in 2018
4. Promoting Meritocracy: To safeguard the merit-based system, ensuring only deserving candidates succeed in public examinations.
5. Restoring Public Trust: To enhance public confidence in the examination process by ensuring transparency and fairness.

Provisions in the Act:

1. Defining Unfair Means:

1. Leaking question papers or answer keys
2. Assisting candidates during exams (unauthorized communication, providing solutions)
3. Tampering with computer networks or resources
4. Impersonating candidates
5. Conducting fake examinations or issuing fake documents
6. Tampering with documents for merit lists or ranks

2. Criminalisation of Cheating: Engaging in unfair means such as impersonation, leaking exam papers, or using unauthorized devices is considered a criminal offense with penalties including fines and imprisonment.
3. Penalties and Punishments:

1. Individuals:
   1. Imprisonment ranges from 3 to 10 years depending on the offense’s severity
   2. Fines up to Rs. 1 crore for organized crimes
2. Service providers:
   1. Fines up to Rs. 1 crore for involvement in malpractices
   2. Barring from conducting public examinations for 4 years
   3. Personal liability for directors/management involved
3. Organized crimes:
   1. Harsher penalties, with imprisonment between 5 and 10 years and a minimum fine of Rs. 1 crore
   2. The institution involved can face property attachment and forfeiture
4. Additional Measures:

1. Establishing specialized courts for speedy trial of offenses
2. Promoting public awareness about the bill and its implications.
3. Empowering Authorities:

1. Conduct surprise checks at exam centers and seize electronic devices if suspected foul play
2. Blacklist service providers found guilty of malpractices
3. Share information and coordinate across agencies to effectively tackle organized cheating

Challenges in implementation

1. Implementation Across Diverse Regions: The scale, availability, and capacity of resources, infrastructures, and officials as well as coordination among them may impact the measures required by the Act.
2. Technological Infrastructure: smaller examining bodies and institutions can experience difficulties in implementing such enhanced registration and verification methods as biometrics and central controls.
3. Resistance to Change: stakeholders involved in the examination activities may not accept change brought by the Act from the traditional examination practices. 

Coverage of the Act:

1. Public Examinations: The Act applies to central and state public examinations, including those for recruitment, professional licenses, and government jobs.
2. University and State Education Board Examinations: The Act covers university exams and state education board exams, ensuring fairness in both higher and secondary education assessments.
3. Competitive Examinations: Major national-level exams like UPSC, SSC, and state public service commissions are within the purview of the Act.
4. Private Examination Centres: Examination centres, whether state-run or private, operating under public examination guidelines, are subject to the provisions of the Act.
5. Digital and Online Examinations: Online exams, vulnerable to hacking or unauthorised access, are also included to prevent digital forms of cheating.

The Public Examination (Prevention of Unfair Means) Act, 2024, is crucial in preserving the fairness of public exams by combating malpractice. As Martin Luther King Jr. said,”Intelligence plus character—that is the goal of true education,” emphasizing the importance of integrity alongside academic success.