Broadly drought is perceived as a sharply felt water deficit caused by variations in the natural hydro-meteorological factors, agro-ecological conditions, and moisture requirements of crops under prevailing cropping choices (systems, patterns).

• A third of the country is drought-prone. It affects parts of Rajasthan (chronically), Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh (MP), Uttar Pradesh (UP), Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Andhra Pradesh.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MAFW)

Types of Droughts:

1. Meteorological Drought occurs when there is a prolonged period of significantly below-average precipitation. An example is a region experiencing several consecutive months of below-average rainfall, which leads to water shortages.
2. Agricultural Drought: When there is insufficient moisture for crops and vegetation to grow, impacting agriculture. Example: A prolonged dry spell affecting crop yields and forcing farmers to irrigate more
3. Hydrological Drought: This type reduces water availability in streams, rivers, and reservoirs. Example: A river experiencing low water levels due to prolonged dry conditions.
4. Socioeconomic Drought: When the impact of a drought extends to economic and social systems, affecting communities. An example is a drought causing food and water shortages, leading to economic hardship and migration.

Criteria To Declare:

The National Commission on Agriculture in India defines three types of droughts:

1. Meteorological drought — A situation when there is more than a 25% decrease from the long-term average precipitation over an area.
2. Agricultural drought, — the situation when soil moisture and rainfall are inadequate to support healthy crop growth
3. Hydrological drought — Prolonged meteorological drought manifested in depletion of surface and sub-surface water resources, which could occur even when the rainfall is normal if there has been a substantial reduction in surface water holding.

Causes:

1. Rainfall Deficiency:  Significant deficiency in rainfall, especially during the monsoon season, below-average monsoon rainfall can lead to drought conditions.
2. El Niño and La Niña: These climate phenomena in the Pacific Ocean can disrupt the normal monsoon patterns in India. El Niño is associated with drier conditions, while La Niña can bring excess rainfall or erratic monsoons.
3. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): IOD events, characterized by sea surface temperature anomalies in the Indian Ocean, can influence the monsoon. A positive IOD can lead to drier conditions in India, contributing to droughts.
4. Delayed or Erratic Monsoons: Sometimes, the monsoon onset may be delayed, or the rains may be irregular, leading to uneven distribution of rainfall across regions and drought in some areas.
5. Temperature Extremes: High temperatures and heat waves can exacerbate drought conditions by increasing evaporation rates and drying out soil and water sources.
6. Deforestation and Land Degradation: Land-use changes, deforestation, and soil degradation can reduce the land’s capacity to retain moisture, making it more susceptible to drought.
7. Over-Extraction of Groundwater: Excessive withdrawal of groundwater for irrigation and domestic use can deplete aquifers and contribute to drought conditions.
8. Inefficient Water Management:  inefficient irrigation methods and mismanagement of water resources, exacerbate water scarcity during droughts.
9. Climate Change: Long-term climate change can alter precipitation patterns and increase the frequency and severity of drought events.

Mitigation:

• Drought Monitoring and Early Warning Systems:
  1. Establish and maintain EW systems to track rainfall, soil moisture, reservoir levels, and crop conditions.
  2. Provide timely information to farmers, policymakers, and the public about impending drought conditions.
• Contingency Planning:
  1. Prepare contingency plans at the district and state levels to respond to drought situations promptly.
  2. Ensure these plans include provisions for food and water supply, livestock care, and support for affected communities.
• Water Management:
  1. Promote efficient water management practices, including rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge, and the equitable distribution of water resources.
  2. Encourage the construction of small-scale water storage structures like check dams and farm ponds.
• Crop Diversification and Resilience:
  1. Encourage crop diversification to reduce dependency on water-intensive crops.
  2. Promote the adoption of drought-resistant crop varieties and sustainable agricultural practices.
• Social Safety Nets:
  1. Establish mechanisms to provide food and financial assistance to vulnerable populations during drought emergencies.
  2. Identify and prioritize the needs of marginalized communities and vulnerable groups.
• Awareness and Education:
  1. Educate farmers and communities about drought preparedness, water conservation, and sustainable land use practices.
  2. Promote training programs for farmers on resilient farming techniques.
• Research and Development: Invest in research and development to improve drought forecasting, crop varieties, and agricultural practices suited to arid and semi-arid regions.
• Infrastructure Development: Invest in rural infrastructure development, including roads, irrigation systems, and storage facilities to improve agricultural resilience.
• Cross-Sectoral Coordination: Facilitate coordination among various government departments, agencies, and stakeholders involved in drought management.
• Legislation and Policy Framework: Review and update drought-related legislation and policies to ensure they are responsive to evolving drought challenges.

NDMA Guidelines:

There is a need to develop a multi-criteria index to classify droughts based on several factors such as the following:

1. Meteorological (rainfall, temperature, etc.)
2. Soil conditions (depth, type, available water content, etc.)
3. Surface water use (proportion of irrigated area, surface water supplies, etc.)
4. Groundwater (availability, utilization, etc.)
5. Crop (cropping pattern changes, land use, crop conditions, anomalies in crop condition, etc.)
6. Socio-economic (proportion of weaker sections, poverty, size class of farm holdings, etc.)

Way Forward:

It is essential that along with a drought monitoring system, medium and long-term area-specific plans be prepared for drought-proofing of susceptible areas. While drought-proofing measures can significantly improve the coping capacity and dampen the impact of drought.

Wave Action: Physical processes and movements associated with the propagation of waves in a fluid medium, such as water or air. It influences coastal erosion, weather patterns, and the design of structures like bridges and offshore platforms.

• The IPCC (2013) has projected global sea-level rise for the period 2081-2100, compared with 1986-2005, to be 0.29-0.82 metres.
• These projections now include a contribution from changes in ice-sheet out-flow, for which the central projection is 0.11 metres.
• It is very likely that the rate of global mean sea-level rise during the 21st century will exceed the rate observed during the period 1970-2010 for all scenarios.
• About 70 % of the global coastlines are projected to experience a sea-level change within 20 % of the global mean sea-level change.
• Some models suggest sea-level rises of between 1 metre and 3 metres in response to carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations above 700 parts per million.
• Studies of the last interglacial period (e.g. Kopp et al., 2009) indicate a very high probability of a sea-level rise of 2 metres over 1 000 years, and cannot rule out values in excess of 4 metres.

States Prone:

1. Gujarat: The coastline of Gujarat along the Arabian Sea is exposed to significant wave action and coastal erosion.
2. Maharashtra: Coastal areas of Maharashtra, including cities like Mumbai, are vulnerable to monsoon storms, tidal waves, and wave action.
3. Goa: Goa faces risks associated with cyclones and storm surges, leading to wave action and erosion.
4. Karnataka: It is susceptible to wave action during monsoon seasons and cyclonic events.
5. Kerala: Kerala is prone to wave action, particularly during the southwest monsoon, and faces risks from storm surges.
6. Tamil Nadu: Exposed to cyclonic activity, leading to wave action and coastal erosion.
7. Andhra Pradesh: Vulnerable to cyclones and associated wave action, especially along the Bay of Bengal coast.
8. Odisha: The extensive coastline along the Bay of Bengal makes it susceptible to cyclones, storm surges, and wave action.
9. West Bengal: Coastal regions of West Bengal, including the Sundarbans delta, are at risk of tidal waves and wave action during cyclones.
10. Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Located in the Bay of Bengal, these islands are prone to wave action and coastal hazards, including tsunamis and storm surges.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Earth Sciences (MOES)

Types:

1. Wind Waves: Generated by local winds, often seen on the ocean’s surface. Example: Ripples on a pond or whitecaps on the sea.
2. Swells: Long-period waves that have traveled far from their area of origin. Example: Groundswell generated by distant storms in the ocean.
3. Tsunamis: Large, long-period waves usually caused by undersea earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. Example: The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
4. Tidal Waves: Caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun, leading to rising and falling tides. Example: Daily high and low tides in coastal areas.

Criteria to Declare:

It typically doesn’t follow specific criteria, declaring a specific event related to wave action (e.g., a storm surge or tsunami) as a disaster or emergency may include:

1. Magnitude and Impact: The severity of wave height, energy, and potential impact on human life, property, and the environment.
2. Forecast and Warning: The issuance of official forecasts and warnings by IMD and NDMA.
3. Extent of Damage: Caused by impact on infrastructure, transportation, and essential services.
4. Local Jurisdictional Authority: Declarations of emergencies or disasters typically made at the local or regional level by municipal governments or state disaster management agencies.
5. Coordination: The coordination of first responders, and organizations involved in disaster management.

Causes of Wave Action :

1. Wind: Wind blowing over the water body generates friction with the water, creating ripples that evolve into waves. Strong winds can lead to larger and more powerful waves.
2. Seismic Activity: Earthquakes or volcanic eruptions beneath the ocean can generate tsunamis, which are large and destructive waves with extremely long wavelengths.
3. Gravitational Pull of the Moon and Sun: Tides are caused by the gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun. This gravitational pull results in the ebb and flow of water and can create wave-like motions.
4. Underwater Geological Features: Submerged features such as underwater ridges, seamounts, and continental shelves can influence the formation and behavior of waves.
5. Human Activities: Activities like ship traffic, coastal construction, and dredging lead to altered wave action along coastlines.

Mitigation:

• Coastal Engineering Structures:
  1. Seawalls: Constructing seawalls or revetments along the coastline can help absorb and deflect wave energy,
  2. Breakwaters: Breakwaters are structures built offshore to reduce the energy of incoming waves.
  3. Groynes and Jetties: designed to trap sand and sediment, helped to build and maintain beaches.
• Beach Nourishment: Adding sand or other sediments to eroded beaches enhancing their ability to absorb wave energy.
• Dune Restoration: Restoring or creating dunes with vegetation can help stabilize coastlines and provide protection.
• Coastal Zoning and Land-Use Planning: Implementing zoning regulations in high-risk coastal areas can reduce exposure to wave hazards.
• Early Warning Systems: In areas prone to tsunamis or storm surges, early warning systems can provide advance notice to residents, allowing them to evacuate to safer areas.
• Ecosystem-Based Approaches: Protecting and restoring coastal ecosystems like mangroves and wetlands can act as natural buffers against wave energy.
• Climate Adaptation Strategies: As climate change intensifies wave action, long-term adaptation strategies are essential for coastal resilience.
• Education and Awareness: Public awareness campaigns can inform about the risks associated.
• International Cooperation: In cases of transboundary wave hazards, international cooperation and agreements can help coordinate efforts to mitigate risks and respond to disasters.

NDMA Guidelines:

1. You should continue using a Weather Radio or staying tuned to a Coast Guard emergency frequency station or a local radio or television station for updated emergency information.
2. Check yourself for injuries and get first aid if necessary before helping injured or trapped persons.
3. Help people who require special assistance—Infants, elderly people,
4. Use the telephone only for emergency calls. Telephone lines are frequently overwhelmed in disaster situations. They need to be clear for emergency calls to get through.
5. Wear long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and sturdy shoes. The most common injury following a disaster is cut feet.
6. Use battery-powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings. Battery-powered lighting is the safest and easiest to use, and it does not present a fire hazard for the user, occupants, or building. DO NOT USE CANDLES.
7. Check for gas leaks.
8. Look for electrical system damage.
9. Watch for loose plaster, drywall, and ceilings that could fall.
10. Take pictures of the damage, both of the building and its contents, for insurance claims. Open the windows and doors to help dry the building.

Way Forward:

1. It involves further research, sustainable harnessing of wave energy, and environmental impact assessment.
2. It’s essential to develop efficient wave energy technologies while minimizing ecological disruption and ensuring long-term viability.
3. Collaboration between scientists, engineers, and policymakers is key to advancing this renewable energy source.

Landslides: Movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope under the direct influence of gravity.

It is estimated that 30% of the world’s landslides occur in the Himalayan ranges.

In the Nilgiris alone, unprecedented rains in the region triggered about 100 landslides.

The mean rate of land loss is to the tune of 120 meters per kilometer per year and the annual soil loss is about 2500 tons per square kilometer.

Landslide Vulnerability Zones:

• Very High Vulnerability Zone: Highly unstable, relatively young mountainous areas in the Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar, Western Ghats and Nilgiris, the north-eastern regions.
• High Vulnerability Zone:  All the Himalayan states and the states from the north-eastern regions except the plains of Assam.

Moderate to Low Vulnerability Zone: Areas that receive less precipitation such as Trans- Himalayan areas of Ladakh and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), Aravali, rain shadow areas in the Western and Eastern Ghats and Deccan plateau.

Types of landslides:

1. Rockfalls: Rapid descent of individual rock fragments. Example: Landslides along mountainous roads, like the Kedarnath landslide in India (2013).
2. Debris Flows: Fast-moving mix of water, soil, and debris. Example: The Oso landslide in Washington, USA (2014).
3. Mudslides: Slurry of waterlogged soil and debris. Example: The Sierra Leone mudslides in Freetown (2017).
4. Landslide Avalanches: Large-scale, fast-moving landslides. Example: The Randa rockslide in Switzerland (1991).
5. Creep: Slow, gradual downhill movement of soil or rock. Example: Ongoing creep on hillsides globally.
6. Earthflows: Sluggish flow of saturated soil and debris. Example: The Vaiont Dam landslide in Italy (1963).
7. Lateral Spreads: Horizontal movement of soil and rock. Example: The Hope Slide in British Columbia, Canada (1965).

Criteria to Declare:

The Indian government typically relies on a combination of criteria and monitoring systems to declare landslides and issue alerts. These criteria may include:

1. Geological Studies: Assessment of factors like soil types, rock formations, and past landslide history.
2. Rainfall Data: Heavy and prolonged rainfall can saturate the soil, increasing the likelihood of landslides.
3. Ground Movement Monitoring: Technologies like inclinometers and GPS are used to detect ground movement or slope instability in vulnerable areas.
4. Remote Sensing: Satellite imagery and aerial surveys are employed
5. Weather Forecasts: Meteorological data and weather forecasts are examined that could trigger landslides.
6. Historical Data: Past landslide events and their impact on specific regions are considered when assessing the risk of future landslides.
7. Early Warning Systems: Many states in India have early warning systems in place to provide alerts to residents in landslide-prone areas when conditions become hazardous.

Causes:

1. Natural
   1. Heavy Rainfall: Prolonged or intense rainfall can saturate the soil, making it more susceptible to sliding.
   2. Steep Slopes: Slopes with steep gradients are more prone to landslides.
   3. Earthquakes: Ground shaking from earthquakes can dislodge rocks and soil, leading to landslides.
   4. Volcanic Activity: By altering the landscape or generating pyroclastic flows.
   5. Erosion: Natural erosion processes, such as rivers undercutting hillsides.
   6. Soil Type: Loose, poorly compacted soils are more likely to fail.
   7. Freeze-Thaw Cycles: In colder climates, freeze-thaw cycles can expand and contract water within rocks and soil, leading to fracturing and landslides.
   8. Wildfires: Fires can destroy vegetation and alter soil properties, increasing the risk of landslides during subsequent rainfall.
2. Anthropogenic:
   1. Deforestation: The removal of trees and vegetation makes slopes more susceptible to sliding.
   2. Human Modification: Changes in land use and urbanization can increase the risk of landslides.
   3. Human Activities: Excavation, mining, construction, and irrigation can alter the natural landscape and trigger landslides.
   4. Lack of Drainage: Inadequate drainage systems can lead to water accumulation in the soil, increasing its weight and instability.

Mitigation:

1. Restriction on the construction and other developmental activities.
2. Limiting agriculture to valleys and areas with moderate slopes.
3. Control on the development of large settlements in the high vulnerability zones.
4. Promoting large-scale afforestation programmes.
5. Constructions of bunds to reduce the flow of water.
6. Terrace farming should be encouraged in the northeastern hill states where Jhumming (Slash and Burn/Shifting Cultivation) is still prevalent.
7. Landslide Risk Mitigation Scheme (LRMS):
   • The Scheme envisages financial support for site specific Landslide Mitigation Projects recommended by landslide prone States, covering “disaster prevention strategy, disaster mitigation and R&D in monitoring of critical Landslides” thereby leading to the development of Early Warning System and Capacity Building initiatives.

NDMA Guidelines:

• Do’s
  1. Move away from landslide paths or downstream valleys quickly without wasting time.
  2. Keep drains clean,
  3. Grow more trees that can hold the soil through roots,
  4. Identify areas of rock fall and subsidence of buildings, cracks that indicate landslides and move to safer areas. Even muddy river waters indicate landslides upstream.
  5. Ensure that the toe of slope is not cut, remain protected, don’t uproot trees unless re-vegetation is planned.
  6. Listen for unusual sounds such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together.
  7. Stay alert, awake and active (3A’s) during the impact or probability of impact.
  8. Try to stay with your family and companions.
  9. Check for injured and trapped persons.
  10. Mark path of tracking so that you can’t be lost in the middle of the forest.
• Don’ts
  1. Try to avoid construction and stay in vulnerable areas.
  2. Do not touch or walk over loose material and electrical wiring or poles.
  3. Do not build houses near steep slopes and near drainage paths.
  4. Do not drink contaminated water directly from rivers, springs, wells but rain water if collected directly without is fine.
  5. Do not move an injured person without rendering first aid unless the casualty is in immediate danger.

Way Forward:

India has a high degree of vulnerability towards the occurrence of Landslides. It is therefore not possible for the government to completely stop their occurrence. Although, it can definitely curtail their adverse impact by developing robust resilience in consonance with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030.

Urban Floods: It is caused by the combination of meteorological, hydrological and human factors. Flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times.

• The global Urban Exposure to flooding increased more than four-fold from 16,443 km² in 1985 to 92,233 km² in 2018.
• The most notable growth occurred in Asia (74.1%), followed by Europe (11.6%), Northern America (8.7%), Africa (2.9%), Southern America (2.2%), and Australia (0.5%).
• Floodplains only accounted for 5.5% of the global land areas, 12.6% of the urban expansion occurred in the floodplains from 1985 to 2018.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Housing and Urban Affairs (MHUA)

States Prone:

• Maharashtra: Cities like Mumbai and Pune are known to experience urban floods.
• West Bengal: Kolkata and other low-lying regions.
• Tamil Nadu: Chennai has faced significant urban flooding incidents in recent years.
• Kerala: Cities like Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram are prone to flooding, due to their topography and heavy rains.
• Gujarat: Urban areas in Gujarat, such as Ahmedabad, can experience flooding during heavy rainfall events, as the state is susceptible to both coastal and riverine flooding.
• Assam: Guwahati and other cities in Assam face urban floods due to their location in the flood-prone Brahmaputra River basin.
• Uttar Pradesh: Cities like Lucknow and Kanpur are at risk of urban flooding, often exacerbated by rapid urbanization and poor drainage infrastructure.
• Bihar: Cities along the Ganges River, like Patna, are susceptible to urban flooding during monsoons and heavy rain events.
• Delhi: The national capital region, including Delhi, is at risk due to urban development, inadequate drainage, and the seasonal overflow of the Yamuna River.
• Andhra Pradesh and Telangana: Cities like Hyderabad are prone to urban flooding, with incidents occurring due to heavy rainfall and rapid urban expansion.

Types of Urban Floods:

1. Sewer Backup Flooding: Happens when sewage systems fail, leading to inundation. Example: Bengaluru’s sewer backup flooding in low-lying areas.
2. Infrastructure Failure Flooding: Caused by failures in urban infrastructure, such as dam breaches or canal breaches. Example: The 1979 Machu Dam failure in Gujarat led to urban flooding.

Criteria to Declare:

In India, the criteria to declare an urban flood can vary by state and local authorities, but some common factors considered include:

1. Rainfall Intensity: The amount and intensity of rainfall over a specified period, often exceeding the local drainage capacity.
2. Waterlogging: Extensive waterlogging in urban areas, leading to disruptions in daily life and traffic flow.
3. River Water Levels: Rising river levels that breach their banks and inundate urban areas can trigger a flood declaration.
4. Drainage System Capacity: Overflow or failure of drainage systems, including stormwater drains and sewers.
5. Impact on Infrastructure: Damage to critical infrastructure like roads, bridges, and public utilities due to water accumulation is also assessed.
6. Evacuation Needs: The necessity of evacuating residents from affected areas due to flooding is a significant factor in declaring an urban flood.

Causes:

• Encroachments on the natural drains and the river floodplains.
• Improper disposal of solid waste.
• Dumping of construction debris.
• Sudden release or failure to release water from dams.
• The urban heat island effect has resulted in an increase in rainfall.
• Global climate change results in increased episodes of high-intensity rainfall events. 

Mitigation:

1. Estimation and identification of emergency needs and resources.
2. Preparation of well-designed plans for the entire post-flooding response.
3. Take all necessary measures for planning, capacity building, and other preparedness.
4. It includes the development of identification of Teams for maintaining the drains and roads,
5. Mobilization of resources and taking measures in terms of equipping, providing training, conducting exercises for prevention of water logging/inundation etc.

NDMA Guidelines:

• Battery operated torch
• Extra batteries
• Battery operated radio
• First aid kit and essential medicines
• Emergency food (dry items) and water (packed and sealed)
• Candles and matches in a waterproof container
• Knife
• Chlorine tablets or powdered water
• Thick ropes and cords
• Shoes

Way Forward:

1. Need For Holistic Engagement: Urban floods of this scale cannot be contained by the municipal authorities alone. Floods cannot be managed without concerted and focused investments of energy and resources.
2. The Metropolitan Development Authorities, National Disaster Management Authority, State Revenue and irrigation departments along municipal corporations should be involved in such work together.
3. Developing Sponge Cities: Sponge cities absorb the rainwater, which is then naturally filtered by the soil and allowed to reach urban aquifers.
4. Wetland Policy: There is a need to start paying attention to the management of wetlands by involving local communities.
5. To improve the city’s capacity to absorb water, new porous materials and technologies must be encouraged or mandated across scales. Examples of these technologies are bioswales and retention systems, permeable materials for roads and pavement, drainage systems that allow stormwater to trickle into the ground, green roofs, and harvesting systems in buildings.

The inundation of land and human settlements by the rise of water in the channels and its spill-over presents the condition of flooding.

• Out of the total geographical area of 329 million hectares (MHA), more than 40 MHA are flood-prone.
• Floods affect an average area of around 7.5 million hectares per year.
• On average, 75 lakh hectares of land are affected every year, 1600 lives are lost, and the damage caused to crops, houses, and public utilities is Rs.1805 crores.

Regions Prone to Flooding in India:

1. The Brahmaputra River Region: This region consists of the rivers Brahmaputra and Barak and their tributaries, and covers the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland, Sikkim and the northern parts of West Bengal.
2. The Ganga River Region: It covers the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar, south and central parts of West Bengal, Punjab, parts of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Delhi.
3. The North-West River Region: The main rivers in this region are the Indus, Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum. This region covers the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and parts of Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan.
4. The Central and Deccan India: Important rivers in this region are the Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Jal Shakti (MOJS)

Types of Floods:

1. Riverine Floods: Result from overflowing rivers or streams. Example: Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta in East India experiences annual riverine flooding during the monsoon.
2. Flash Floods: Rapid-onset floods often caused by heavy rainfall or dam breaks. Example: Uttarakhand Flash Floods in 2013, triggered by heavy rains and glacial lake outburst.
3. Coastal Floods: Occur along coastlines due to storms, cyclones, or high tides. Example: Coastal areas of West Bengal and Bangladesh faced flooding during Cyclone Amphan in 2020.
4. Pluvial Floods: Caused by excessive rainfall, leading to localized flooding. Example: Urban areas like Chennai and Bangalore face pluvial flooding during heavy rains.
5. Dam or Levee Break Floods: Result from the failure of dams or levees. Example: The Machu Dam failure in Gujarat in 1979 led to significant flooding.

Criteria to Declare:

The Indian government typically declares a flood based on specific criteria that may vary slightly from state to state. However, some common criteria for declaring a flood in India include:

1. Rainfall Thresholds: When heavy and sustained rainfall exceeds certain predefined thresholds for a particular region or river basin.
2. River Water Levels: water levels in rivers or reservoirs rise significantly and pose a threat to communities downstream,
3. Dam Releases: The release of water to maintain their structural integrity can lead to downstream flooding.
4. Weather Warnings: Based on weather warnings from meteorological agencies, such as the India Meteorological Department (IMD), which predict heavy rainfall.
5. Impact Assessment: Assessment of rising water levels on communities, infrastructure, and agriculture done by authorities.

Causes: Floods can also be caused due to a storm surge (in the coastal areas), high intensity rainfall for a considerably longer time period, melting of ice and snow, reduction in the infiltration rate and presence of eroded material in the water due to higher rate of soil erosion.

Mitigation:

1. Early Warning Systems: India has an extensive network of meteorological and hydrological stations to monitor rainfall and river levels.
2. River Basin Planning: Regulate water flow, reduce siltation, and control flooding which includes the construction of dams, reservoirs, and embankments.
3. Floodplain Zoning: Identify and demarcate flood-prone areas, and restrict or regulate construction and development in these zones.
4. Flood Forecasting and Modeling: Utilize advanced technologies and modeling techniques to predict and analyze floods, enabling more effective response planning.
5. Embankments and Flood Control Structures: Construct and maintain flood control structures such as embankments, levees, and flood walls to protect vulnerable areas.
6. Climate Change Adaptation: Consider the potential impacts of climate change on flooding patterns and incorporate adaptive strategies into flood mitigation plans.
7. International Collaboration: Collaborate with neighboring countries, especially in the case of transboundary rivers, to share data and coordinate flood management efforts.
8. River Training and Dredging: Undertake River training and dredging projects to improve the flow of rivers and reduce the risk of flooding.

NDMA Guideline:

• Battery operated torch
• Extra batteries
• Battery operated radio
• First aid kit and essential medicines
• Emergency food (dry items) and water (packed and sealed)
• Candles and matches in a waterproof container
• Knife
• Chlorine tablets or powdered water
• Thick ropes and cords

Way Forward:

• The entire suite of measures structural and non-structural, an appropriate mix of grey, blue, and green infrastructure needs to be considered for flood management.
• Mindsets needing changing flood flows should be seen as a resource to be conserved for subsequent use and water security.
• A river basin approach should be adopted for flood management while taking care of the environment.
• It is prudent we upgrade the hydro infrastructure in the country now so that the tools to manage increased variabilities are available in time.

A type of geological event near an opening/vent in the Earth’s surface including volcanic eruptions of lava, ash, hot vapour, gas, and pyroclastic material.

• Ash fall 
• Lahar – Hot or cold mixture of earthen material flowing on the slope of a volcano either during or between volcanic eruptions
• Lava Flow
• Pyroclastic Flow – Extremely hot gases, ash, and
• other materials of more than 1,000 degrees Celsius that rapidly flow down the flank of a volcano (more than 700 km/h) during an eruption. 

• There are about 1500 potentially active volcanoes worldwide. 
• Volcanic activities and wildfires affected 6.2 million people and caused nearly 2400 deaths between 1998-2017.

Regions Prone to Volcanic eruptions: Barren island (A&N), Narcondam (Andaman Sea), Deccan trap in Deccan plateau, Baratang (Andaman Island), Dhinodhar hills (Gujarat), Dhosi hills (Aravali mountains), Tosham hills (Haryana).Nodal Ministry: Min. of Earth Sciences (MOES)

Types of Volcanic Eruptions:

1. Stratovolcanoes: Steep-sided with explosive eruptions. Example: Mount St. Helens.
2. Shield Volcanoes: Broad and gently sloping with non-explosive eruptions. Example: Mauna Loa.
3. Cinder Cone Volcanoes: Small, steep-sided with ash and cinder eruptions. Example: Paricutin.
4. Caldera Volcanoes: Large, basin-like depressions from explosive eruptions. Example: Yellowstone Caldera.
5. Lava Domes: Bulbous mounds from slow-moving lava. Example: Novarupta Dome.
6. Submarine Volcanoes: Form underwater. Example: Lo’ihi (Hawaii).
7. Fissure Volcanoes: Erupt along cracks. Example: Laki (Iceland).
8. Super-volcanoes: Erupt cataclysmically. Example: Yellowstone (potential supervolcano).

Criteria to Declare:

Central or State authorities declare the area as volcanically active based on these parameters:

1. Volcanic Activity: This includes volcanic eruptions, lava flows, ash emissions, and any other signs of volcanic unrest.
2. Geological Evidence: The presence of volcanic rocks, craters, calderas, lava domes, or volcanic vents features strong evidence of volcanic origin.
3. Seismic Activity: Monitoring seismic activity, including volcanic earthquakes and tremors, is crucial.
4. Gas Emissions: Measuring the composition and quantity of (SO2) or carbon dioxide (CO2), can provide insights into volcanic activity and potential hazards.
5. Ground Deformation: Detected through techniques like GPS and satellite-based interferometry, can indicate magma movement.
6. Historical Records: Historical records of past eruptions, including eyewitness accounts, written records, and geological studies, are important for assessing a volcano’s history and potential future behavior.
7. Remote Sensing: Used to monitor changes in surface temperature, volcanic ash plumes, and ground deformation.

Causes:

1. Underwater Earthquakes: When tectonic plates at subduction zones converge, they suddenly displace a massive amount of water, generating a tsunami.
2. Volcanic Eruptions: The expulsion of magma and gas from a volcano can create a sudden and forceful displacement.
3. Landslides: Landslides from coastal cliffs or mountains, can displace a significant amount of water upon impact, generating a tsunami.
4. Meteorite Impacts: Although rare, The energy released from such an impact can create powerful waves.
5. Glacial Calving: When large pieces of ice break off from glaciers and fall into the ocean, they can displace water and generate small tsunamis, known as “glacial tsunamis.”
6. Fault Zones: Faults that lie beneath the ocean can slip suddenly, displacing seawater and causing a tsunami.

Mitigation:

India had a set of official guidelines primarily related to the Barren Island volcano in the Andaman Sea. These guidelines were primarily managed by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) and the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD).

1. Monitoring and Early Warning: Continuous monitoring of volcanic activity using seismic instruments, gas analyzers, and satellite technology to detect signs of volcanic unrest.
2. Hazard Zonation: Establishment of hazard zones based on the type and potential impact.
3. Evacuation Plans: Development of evacuation plans and routes for nearby communities. Regular drills and training exercises to ensure preparedness.
4. Public Awareness and Education: Educate local communities about volcanic hazards and safety measures.
5. Coordination: Coordination between the GSI, IMD, local administration, and disaster management authorities to ensure minimal harm caused.
6. Emergency Response: Prepositioning of emergency supplies, medical teams, stockpiling food, water, medicines, and setting up emergency shelters.

Tsunamis (Japanese for “harbour wave”), also known as a seismic sea wave, are a series of very large waves with extremely long wavelengths, in the deep ocean, the length from crest to crest may be 100 km and more. When the seafloor abruptly deforms the sudden vertical displacements over large areas disturb the ocean’s surface, displace water, and generate tsunami waves.

1. Of the nearly 7,500 km long coastline, close to 5,700 km is prone to cyclones and tsunamis.
2. States Prone to Tsunami:
   1. Kerala- Alleppey and Earnakulam
   2. Tamil Nadu- Cuddalore, Kancheepuram, Chennai, Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi, Villupuram, Thiruvarur, Ramanathapuram, Thanjavur
   3. Andhra Pradesh- Nellore, Prakasam, Guntur. Visakhapatnam, East and West Godavari
   4. Pondicherry
   5. Orissa
3. Between 1998-2017, tsunamis caused more than 2,50,000 deaths globally, including more than 2,27,000 deaths due to the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004.
4. More than 700 million people live in low-lying coastal areas and Small Island Developing States exposed to extreme sea-level events including tsunamis.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Earth Sciences (MOES).

Types of Tsunamis:

1. Tectonic Tsunamis: Caused by underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or fault movements along tectonic plate boundaries.
2. Landslide Tsunamis: Triggered by underwater landslides, which can displace a large volume of water.
3. Meteorological Tsunamis (Metetsunamis): Generated by atmospheric disturbances such as severe storms, rapid pressure changes, or weather fronts.

Criteria to Declare:

The Indian government, like many other governments around the world, relies on various criteria and systems to detect and declare tsunamis. Key components of the criteria include:

1. Seismic Activity: A significant earthquake with a magnitude above a certain threshold (usually around 6.5 or higher) can trigger tsunami alerts.
2. Ocean Buoy Data: Buoy systems are equipped with sensors that can detect changes in sea level. A sudden, abnormal rise in sea level can be indicative of a tsunami wave.
3. Tide Gauge Readings: Provide real-time data on sea level changes. Unusual, rapid and significant increase in fluctuations in sea level, can be a sign of an approaching tsunami.
4. Earthquake Location and Depth: Shallow, undersea earthquakes are more likely to cause tsunamis.
5. Historical Data: Areas with a history of tsunamis are often given higher priority for monitoring and early warning systems.
6. International Coordination: India is part of the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System (IOTWMS), which collaborates with other countries in the region.

Mitigation:

The Ministry of Earth Sciences primarily managed these guidelines through agencies like the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) and the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA).

1. Early Warning System: Network of seismometers, tide gauges, and buoy systems helps for the detection of undersea earthquakes and the issuance of timely warnings.
2. Public Awareness: Educate coastal communities and residents by signage, community drills, and educational materials.
3. Evacuation Plans: Identify safe evacuation routes and locations for residents in case of a tsunami warning.
4. Coordination: Ensure coordination amoung NDMA, INCOIS, Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), and local administrations, to ensure a coordinated response in the event of a tsunami.
5. Building Codes: Enforce building codes and construction standards for more reselience.
6. Community Preparedness: Encourage community-based disaster management and preparedness initiatives. Local communities should be actively involved in planning and response efforts.
7. Research and Monitoring: Invest in research to better understand the tsunami hazard in Indian waters.
8. International Collaboration: Collaborate with neighboring countries and international organizations to share data and expertise related to tsunami warning and response.

NDMA Guidelines:

1. It would be best if you continued using a Weather Radio or staying tuned to a Coast Guard emergency frequency station or a local radio or television station for updated emergency information.
2. Check yourself for injuries and get first aid, if necessary, before helping injured or trapped persons.
3. Help people who require special assistance—Infants, elderly people,
4. Use the telephone only for emergency calls. Telephone lines are frequently overwhelmed in disaster situations. They need to be clear for emergency calls to get through.
5. Wear long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and sturdy shoes. The most common injury following a disaster is cut feet.
6. Use battery-powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings.
7. Battery-powered lighting is the safest and easiest to use, and it does not present a fire hazard for the user, occupants, or building. DO NOT USE CANDLES.
8. Check for gas leaks.
9. Look for electrical system damage.
10. Watch for loose plaster, drywall, and ceilings that could fall.
11. Take pictures of the damage, both of the building and its contents, for insurance claims. Open the windows and doors to help dry the building.

Way Forward

The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) has now developed a system that will be able to predict risk to coastal areas, the height of waves that can hit them, and even pinpoint vulnerable buildings, all in “real-time,” represents a significant improvement in India’s capacity to assess dangers following a tsunami event.

It is the shaking of the earth. It is caused due the release of energy, which generates waves that travel in all directions.  Mass movement— Surface displacement of earthen materials due to ground shaking triggered by earthquakes.

Nearly 59% of India’s territory is prone to moderate to severe earthquakes.

11% fall in very high-risk zone V.

Seven states in North East, Andaman & Nicobar Islands and part of Eight states/UT (Bihar, Gujarat, HP, Uttarakhand, J&K, Ladakh, Punjab and WB) are in Seismic Zone V i.e., prone to very high damage risk.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Earth Sciences (MOES).

Types of Earthquakes:

1. Tectonic Earthquakes: Subtypes include transform, divergent, and convergent plate boundary earthquakes.
2. Volcanic Earthquakes: these earthquakes occur as magma moves beneath the Earth’s surface.
3. Induced Earthquakes: Triggered by human activities such as mining, reservoir-induced seismicity, and hydraulic fracturing (fracking).

Types of Mass Movements:

1. Landslides: Rapid downslope movement of rock, soil, and debris. Subtypes include rockfalls, debris flows, and mudslides.
2. Avalanches: Rapid downhill movement of snow, ice, and debris. It can be triggered by various factors, including snow instability.
3. Creep: Slow, continuous movement of soil or rock downslope over time.
4. Solifluction: This type of creep occurs in areas with permanently frozen ground (permafrost).

Criteria to declare:

The declaration of an earthquake usually involves various stages and considerations:

1. Seismic Event Detection: First detected by a network of seismometers and seismic monitoring agencies. In India, the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) is responsible for monitoring and detecting seismic activity.
2. Magnitude Threshold: Seismic events below a certain magnitude may not trigger official declarations. The specific magnitude threshold may vary depending on the region and local policies.
3. Intensity Assessment: The Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) & Ritcher scale is often used to evaluate the impact of the earthquake on the ground.
4. Post–Event Assessment: to evaluate the extent of damage, the needs of affected communities, and the effectiveness of the response efforts.

Causes:

• Natural:
  1. Tectonic movements: Sudden tectonic movements within the Earth’s crust resulting in the release of energy along a fault. Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite directions (divergent plate boundary). This causes a release of energy, and the energy waves travel in all directions.  EQ may also occur in transform boundaries where (Plates slide past each other) and Subduction Zones.
  2. Volcanic activities: The movement of magma and the release of gases can induce volcanic earthquakes.
  3. Landslides and avalanches.
• Anthropogenic:
  1. Dams: The filling of large reservoirs behind dams can increase pressure on underlying faults, triggering earthquakes.
  2. Underground Nuclear tests
  3. Geothermal Energy Extraction: The extraction of geothermal fluids from the Earth’s crust can lead to induced seismicity by altering subsurface pressures and permeability.
  4. Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking): injecting fluids into the ground at high pressure to extract oil and gas can induce seismic events by altering subsurface pressure and lubricating fault lines.
  5. Mining: Underground mining operations can induce seismic events when rock masses are destabilized.

Mitigation:

1. Building Codes: Enforce strict construction codes (National building code 2016 guidelines) that ensure buildings and infrastructure can withstand seismic forces.
2. Retrofitting: Upgrade older buildings to meet current seismic standards.
3. Early Warning Systems: Implement earthquake early warning systems to provide advance notice to residents and businesses.
4. Emergency Preparedness: Educate the public on earthquake preparedness, including creating emergency kits and evacuation plans.
5. Land Use Planning: Restrict development in high-risk areas and consider seismic hazards in urban planning.
6. Insurance: Encourage earthquake insurance to help with recovery efforts.
7. Seismic Hazard Assessment: Continuously monitor and assess seismic activity to refine risk assessments.
8. Public Education: Raise awareness about earthquake risks and safety measures through campaigns and drills.
9. Critical Infrastructure Resilience: Strengthen essential infrastructure like hospitals, bridges, and power plants.
10. International Cooperation: Collaborate with neighboring regions to share knowledge and resources for disaster response and recovery.

NDMA Guidelines:

Six pillars of earthquake management in India:

1. Ensure the incorporation of earthquake resistant design features for the construction of new structures.
2. Facilitate selective strengthening and seismic retrofitting of existing priority and life line structures In earthquake prone areas.
3. Improve the compliance regime through appropriate regulation and enforcement.
4. Improve the awareness and preparedness of all stakeholders.
5. Introduce appropriate capacity development interventions for effective earthquake management (including education, training, documentation, R&D)
6. Strengthen the emergency response capability in earthquake prone areas.

Best Practices:

Agriculture fair Satara Maharashtra– demonstration of the earthquake resistant construction structures in annual fairs, which are also cost-effective.
Japan-urgent earthquake detection and alarm system to shut off electricity supply.
Traditional Dhajji–Dewari system of building houses in Kashmir.

Way Forward:

• Governments and policymakers ought to know better than act in a piecemeal manner.
• Programmes like the ongoing Urban 20 meetings are an excellent opportunity for international knowledge exchange on earthquake preparedness.
• The Delhi High Court’s directions must act as a reminder for the inclusion of an earthquake preparedness policy in urban renewal programmes such as the Smart Cities Mission.
• A policy on earthquake preparedness requires a visionary, radical and transformative approach.

Civil Services: “While governments may come and go, ministers may rise and fall, the administration of a country goes on forever. Needless to say, civil services form the backbone of administration”.   – Ramsay Muir

“…you will not have a united India, if you have not a good all-India service which has the independence of mind, to speak out its mind, which has the sense of security…this Constitution is meant to be worked by a ring of service which will keep the country intact.” – Sardar Patel, in the Constituent Assembly in 1949.

“Above all, I would advise you to maintain to the utmost the impartiality and incorruptibility of administration. A civil servant cannot afford to and must not take part in politics. Nor must he involve himself in communal wrangles” – Sardar Patel

“We need government servants with commitments to the development of the country and personal involvement in the tasks”. – Indira Gandhi 

Evolution of Civil Services in India

1. Origins and Arthashastra: India’s civil service roots can be traced back to the Mauryan period with the guidance of Kautilya’s Arthashastra, which outlines civil servant recruitment, loyalty, evaluation, and ethical conduct principles.
2. British Influence and Reforms:
   1. Warren Hastings (1772): Established the role of district collector focused primarily on revenue collection and management.
   2. Lord Cornwallis: Known as the father of civil services in India, separated revenue and judicial administrations and enhanced the role of district collector.
   3. Macaulay’s Report & Charter Act of 1853: Initiated open competitive examinations for civil services, still heavily biased towards European studies and held only in London.
3. Civil Services Commission (1854): Established post-Macaulay’s recommendations, conducting exams in London with age restrictions of 18 to 23 years. Satyendra nath Tagore became the first Indian to join the civil services in 1864.
4. Aitchinson Commission (1886): Recommended a structured reorganization into Imperial, Provincial, and Subordinate services, managed by the Secretary of State and respective states.
5. Indian Civil Service (1911): Aimed to consolidate British administrative control.
6. Post-World War I Reforms:
   1. Following the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, examination centers were established in India, initially in Allahabad and later Delhi.
   2. The Federal Public Service Commission was established by 1922.
7. Government of India Act 1919: Distinguished between All India Services and Central Services, the latter directly under Central Government control.
8. Government of India Act 1935: Established a Public Service Commission for the Federation and individual commissions for provinces or groups of provinces.
9. Post-Independence Transition:
   1. The Federal Public Service Commission was renamed to the Union Public Service Commission in 1950, as mandated by Article 378 of the Constitution.
   2. The civil service shifted focus from enforcing British rule to welfare-oriented tasks in independent India, gradually moving towards development and facilitation roles through the late 20th century.
10. Current Structure:
    1. Classification: Civil services are classified into Central Civil Services, All India Services, and State Civil Services based on their scope and function.
11. Recruitment: UPSC conducts exams for All India Services and higher central services, while Group B, C, and D services are filled by the Staff Selection Commission and State Public Service Commissions.

Constitutional Provisions

Part XIV: Services under the Union and the States

Article	Description	Details
Article 309	Regulation of Recruitment and Service Conditions	Empowers both Parliament and state legislatures to regulate recruitment and service conditions in public services.
Article 310	Doctrine of Pleasure	Civil servants hold their posts at the pleasure of the President or the state governors, implying they can be removed at will.
Article 311	Safeguards against Dismissal	Protects civil servants from being dismissed or demoted by a lower authority than the one that appointed them, and ensures a fair inquiry process before any disciplinary action.
Article 312	Creation of New All India Services	Enables the Rajya Sabha, with a two-thirds majority, to initiate the creation of new All India services, including recruitment and service rules.
Articles 315 to 322	Public Service Commissions	Establish and detail the functions of the Union and State Public Service Commissions, which oversee recruitment and conduct examinations.
Article 323A	Administrative Tribunals	Allows for the establishment of administrative tribunals to resolve disputes related to recruitment and service conditions in public services.

Role of Civil Services in a Democracy

Role	Description	Examples and Details
Implementation of Policies	Civil servants are responsible for implementing laws and policies formulated by the elected government.	Ensuring the execution of schemes like MGNREGA and Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana.
Continuity and Stability	ensure administrative continuity through political transitions and changes in political leadership.	Maintaining stability and consistency in administration during political transitions.
Advisory Role	provide technical expertise and advisory support to political leaders, helping craft policies that are both practical and effective.	Advising on economic policies, health regulations, and administrative reforms.
Service Delivery	Directly responsible for delivering essential public services to citizens.	Managing public health, education, infrastructure, and welfare programs.
Crisis Management	Play a critical role in disaster management and emergency response.	Coordinating relief efforts during natural disasters like floods, earthquakes, and pandemics.
Promotion of Democratic Values	Uphold the principles of democracy by ensuring fair and impartial administration.	Armstrong Pame directly engaged with local communities to build the “People’s Road” in Manipur,
Administration and Governance	Oversee the day-to-day administration and ensure the smooth functioning of government machinery.	Managing public services, maintaining law and order, and ensuring efficient public service delivery.
Public Accountability	Civil services ensure accountability in governance by maintaining transparency and adherence to the rule of law.	Implementing the Right to Information Act (RTI) to promote transparency and accountability in public offices.
Regulation and Control	Enforce laws and regulations to maintain public order and safety.	Roles in regulatory bodies like the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) and the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
Social Welfare and Development	Civil servants manage resources, implement infrastructure projects, and execute social welfare programs aimed at improving living standards.	M.S. Swaminathan‘s implementation of high-yielding variety seeds and improved irrigation practices under the Green Revolution.

Evolution role of bureaucracy

Decade	Key Developments
1947-1960s	Nation Building – Led by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, focusing on democratic socialism, with initiatives in industrialization, agrarian reforms and infrastructure.
1967	Democratization of Bureaucracy – Post-1967 assembly elections, increased inclusion of backward castes in civil services was initiated, marking the beginning of a more inclusive bureaucracy.
1970s-1980s	Committed Bureaucracy – During Indira Gandhi’s tenure, especially the Emergency (1975-1977), bureaucrats were expected to align closely with ruling party ideologies.
1990s	Economic Liberalization – Introduction of economic reforms under P.V. Narasimha Rao and then Finance Minister Manmohan Singh in 1991, leading to the dismantling of the License Raj and a shift towards a market-driven economy with reduced bureaucratic control.
2000s onwards	Globalization and IT Revolution – Focus on e-governance and transparency, the Right to Information Act (2005) was introduced, enhancing bureaucratic accountability.

Theories on Bureaucracy

Theory	Description	Key Points	Examples
Weber’s Bureaucratic Theory	Max Weber’s theory emphasizes a structured, hierarchical organization governed by clear rules and roles.	Emphasizes formal rules and procedures Hierarchical structure Merit-based recruitment	Indian Civil Services
New Public Manage ent (NPM)	Advocates for the use of private sector management techniques in the public sector to improve efficiency and service delivery.	Decentralization Performance measurement Market-oriented reforms	UK Government: Performance-based evaluations and outsourcing in public services​
Public Value Theory	Emphasizes the creation of value for the public through public sector initiatives and services.	Focus on outcomes Stakeholder engagement Value creation
Scientific Management Theory	Frederick Taylor’s theory focuses on improving economic efficiency through systematic management.	Work specialization Standardized tasks Efficiency and productivity focus	Production lines in manufacturing, such as those pioneered by Henry Ford .
Human Relations Theory	Elton Mayo’s theory stresses the importance of social factors and employee well-being in productivity.	Focus on employee morale Importance of group dynamics Impact of social relationships	Modern HR practices emphasizing team building and employee satisfaction .
Systems Theory	Views organizations as complex systems with interrelated parts working towards a common goal.	Interdependence of subsystems Emphasis on feedback loops Adaptability and flexibility	Healthcare System: Departments (radiology, surgery, pharmacy) collaborate for patient care​
Contingency Theory	Argues that there is no one best way to organize; instead, the optimal course depends on the internal and external situation.	Adaptability to the environment Fit between organization and context  Emphasis on situational variables	Organizations adapting their structures to changing market conditions .
Public Choice Theory	Applies economic principles to political science, focusing on self-interest and incentives in public sector decision-making.	Rational behavior of individuals Self-interest in public decisions Market-like efficiency in public sector	Policy-making influenced by voter behavior and lobbying .
New Public Management (NPM)	Focuses on the relationship between principals (e.g., citizens) and agents (e.g., bureaucrats), emphasizing accountability and control mechanisms.	Information asymmetry Monitoring and incentives Aligning interests of principals and agents	Use of performance evaluations and audits in public administration .

Bureaucracy and Democracy

Bureaucracy and democracy are two crucial elements of governance. Democracy allows the public to elect their leaders, whereas bureaucracy involves competent officials appointed through merit to implement government policies.

Positive Co-relation between Civil Services and Democracy

Aspect	Democracy	Bureaucracy
Foundation of Governance	Governance system elected by and accountable to the people.	Essential administrative machinery needed to implement policies.
Implementation of Policies	Enacts laws and policies through elected representatives based on public opinion and needs.	Executes laws and policies, ensuring efficient delivery of services; corrects errors and avoids waste.
Continuity and Change in Governance	Facilitates change and adaptation through elections and public opinion.	Provides stability and continuity across different government terms, functioning irrespective of election outcomes.
Socio-Economic Development	Driven by public needs and demands, focusing on inclusive socio-economic growth.	Manages essential resources and infrastructure development; sets developmental goals for key sectors.
Protection of Rights	Provides a framework for the protection of fundamental rights through legislation and judiciary.	In turbulent times, services like the police maintain order and protect citizens’ rights as per the law.
Adaptability vs. Consistency	Encourages adaptability and responsiveness to current needs and circumstances.	Prioritizes consistency and regularity, which may resist rapid changes needed in governance.
Governance Style	Promotes participation, consensus-making, and accommodates diverse viewpoints.	May exhibit a traditional, sometimes authoritarian approach to enforcing rules and regulations.
Post-Liberalization Role	Supports entrepreneurship, private sector growth, and economic reforms like ‘Ease of Doing Business’.	Acts as a facilitator and regulator, focusing on core public sectors and supporting global economic integration.
Citizen-Centric Governance	Focuses on inclusivity, transparency, and accountability, empowering citizens through rights awareness.	Adapting to more decentralized and citizen-focused approaches, treating civil society and private sectors as partners.
Demanding Governance	Citizens actively participate and demand higher standards of governance and service delivery.	Faces increasing demands for accountability and transparency as citizens become more rights-aware.

How bureaucracy undermines democracy

Aspect	Description	India-Specific Examples
Lack of Accountability	Bureaucrats are often not directly accountable to the public, leading to a disconnect between public interests and bureaucratic actions.	Reports of bureaucrats delaying responses or providing incomplete information under the Right to Information Act​
Opaque Decision-Making	Bureaucratic processes can be complex and non-transparent, making it difficult for the public to understand and scrutinize decisions.	Rafale Deal: Lack of transparency in defense procurement processes.
Resistance to Change	Bureaucracies can be resistant to change, adhering strictly to established rules and procedures, even when they are outdated or inefficient.	E-Governance Initiatives: Resistance to adopting e-governance in rural administration due to adherence to traditional methods​
Centralization of Power	Bureaucracies often centralize power, reducing the influence of local and regional authorities and limiting grassroots participation.	bureaucracies often centralize power, reducing the influence of local and regional authorities and limiting grassroots participation.
Inefficiency and Red Tape	Bureaucratic inefficiency and excessive red tape can delay the implementation of policies, frustrating public expectations and trust in government.	Environmental Clearances: Delays in project approvals due to bureaucratic red tape​
Self-Interest and Corruption	Bureaucrats may pursue personal or institutional self-interests, leading to corruption and misuse of power, which undermines public trust.	2G Spectrum Scandal: Corruption in telecom license allocation undermined public trust​
Overlapping Jurisdiction	Conflicts and overlaps between different bureaucratic agencies can lead to inefficiency and lack of coordination, hindering effective governance.	MoEFCC and State Agencies: Delays in project approvals due to overlapping responsibilities​​.
Lack of Public Engagement	Bureaucracies often operate with limited input from the public, reducing citizen engagement and participation in governance processes.	Limited public consultation in land acquisition processes leading to protests and legal challenges​

All India Services

The All-India Services (AIS), comprising the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), Indian Police Service (IPS), and Indian Forest Service (IFS), are crucial to maintaining India’s federal structure as outlined in Article 312 of the Constitution. 

These prestigious services operate under the dual control of the state governments, to which the officers are assigned, and the central government,which oversees their recruitment, appointment, and training.

Significance of All-India Services:

Significance	Description	Examples
National Integration	Promotes a unified administrative framework across states, fostering national unity and coherence.	IAS and IPS officers serve in various states, helping to integrate regional governance with national policies​.
Central-State Coordination	Facilitates seamless cooperation between the central and state governments, ensuring aligned policy implementation.	IPS officers ensure coordinated law enforcement efforts between state police forces and central agencies, maintaining internal security​​.
Uniformity inAdministration	Ensures standardized administrative practices and policies across the country, reducing regional disparities.	IFS officers apply uniform forestry policies, ensuring consistent forest management practices nationwide​
Merit-based Administration	Maintains high standards of governance through rigorous, merit-based selection and promotion processes.	UPSC’s strict selection criteria for IAS, IPS, and IFS ensure that only the most capable individuals are recruited for top administrative roles​​.
Professional Expertise	Offers diverse administrative experience to officers, enhancing their ability to manage complex governance issues.	IAS officers gain experience by serving in various roles such as district magistrates, state secretaries, and central government officials​.
Effective Policy Implementation	Provides continuity and consistency in the execution of national and state policies, enhancing governance efficiency.	IAS officers implement central schemes like MGNREGA and PDS uniformly across states, ensuring broad reach and effectiveness​​.

Challenges Facing All-India Services

Challenge	Description
Hangover of the Past	Authoritarian Structure: The AIS was created during British rule and has retained a hierarchical, authoritarian structure​
Against Federalism	AIS officers are seen as agents of the central government, often clashing with state autonomy.
	Although AIS responsibilities are shared between the center and states, they are listed under the Union List (Entry 70), which emphasizes central control and sparks debate over the formation of new AIS and its implications for state autonomy and finances.
	Assigning about 50% of AIS positions to officers from outside the state can create tensions with state services and local political leaders.
	The requirement for state consent for central deputation has been removed, leading to increased tensions over the deployment of AIS officers between the center and states.
No Familiarity	Cultural Disconnect: AIS officers from different states may struggle to understand local problems and contexts, leading to ineffective governance.
Lack of Specialization	Jack of All Trades: IAS officers being generalists are often unable to provide specialized expertise required for certain administrative roles​
Unequal Representation	Over-representation: States like Punjab, UP, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh have more representation, while others have less​
Financial Burden	High salary and maintenance costs of AIS officers put a financial strain on state governments.
Procedure Over Orientation	Focus on procedural compliance rather than outcome-oriented governance leads to inefficiency.
Lack of Separation of Functions	The mixing of policy-making, implementation, and regulatory functions leads to inefficiencies.
Departmental Fragmentation	Ministry Proliferation: Overlapping and fragmented functions across numerous ministries lead to inefficiencies and confusion
Hierarchy and Delays	Hierarchical nature of AIS leads to delays, corruption, and lack of accountability.
Coordination Issues	Poor coordination among different departments and ministries leads to policy implementation failures.

Way Forward

Sarkaria Commission Recommendations:

1. Continued Relevance: AIS are as essential today as when the Constitution was framed.
2. Strengthening AIS: Enhance AIS through improvements in selection, training, deployment, development, and promotion policies.
3. Shift to Specialization: Move from generalist to specialist roles in public administration.
4. Mandatory Union Service: All AIS officers, both direct recruits and promoted, should serve a minimum period with the Union Government, with specific deputation requirements.
5. Regular Consultations: Establish regular consultations on AIS management between Union and State Governments.
6. Advisory Council: Create an Advisory Council for Personnel Administration of AIS, composed of senior officers, to regularly address issues and suggest solutions.
7. New AIS Branches: Encourage the formation of Indian Service of Engineers, Indian Medical and Health Service, and an AIS for Education.

Cadre-based Civil Service

Cadre refers to a small, trained group forming the basic unit of an organization. In All India Services (AIS), candidates are assigned to cadres based on their preferences, merit, and availability.

Each Indian state constitutes a separate cadre, with exceptions like Assam-Meghalaya, Manipur-Tripura, and Arunachal Pradesh-Goa-Mizoram-Union Territories (AGMUT), which are joint cadres. Cadres determine where officers will serve throughout their careers.

Recent Changes in Cadre Policy

1. The Centre will determine the exact number of officers to be assigned to the Central government, in consultation with the states.
2. In the event of a disagreement between the Centre and the state, the Centre’s decision will prevail, and the state will be required to implement the Centre’s decision within a specified timeframe.

Significance of Cadre-Based Services

1. Impartiality and Integrity: Key administrative and police positions in state governments, called ‘cadre posts,’ are reserved for IAS/IPS officers to ensure quality, impartiality, integrity, and an all-India outlook.
2. Greater Accountability: State-based cadres are more accountable as officers are responsible to their respective state governments.
3. Stable Service Period: Civil servants serving in a state have a stable period to implement programs and improve service delivery.
4. Greater Understanding of the Region: Civil servants working in their home state gain a better understanding of regional issues and needs.

Issues

1. Recent Issues
2. Historically, 25-30 percent of state cadre officers were on central deputation, but currently, less than 10 percent serve in central ministries. 
3. Officers often prefer state postings due to better service conditions. 
4. This shortage of officers affects the central government’s ability to effectively make and implement policies.
5. Structural Issues
   1. Permanency of Cadres: Permanent cadres result in inefficiency and a narrow focus on local issues, diminishing the all-India character of civil services.
   2. Large Variation in Cadre Size: Significant variations exist in IAS cadre sizes relative to state populations, causing imbalances in officer distribution.
   3. Reluctance to ‘De-Cadre’ Positions: Some positions have lost their relevance due to changing conditions but are rarely removed from the cadre, leading to inefficiencies.
6. Regional and Political Concerns
   1. Regionalism: Officers staying in one state tend to prioritize regional goals, which can undermine national interests.
   2. Political Self-Interest: Long tenures in one state can lead to bias and unethical activities due to close relationships with local political parties.
   3. Collusion with Local Politicians: Officers may collaborate with local politicians for preferred postings, leading to corruption.
7. Functional Limitations
   1. Provincialization: IAS officers often do not move between state and central governments, reducing their all-India role. It hinders the adoption and spread of effective practices across different cadres.
   2. Specialized Positions: Cadre-based services limit the recruitment of specialists through lateral entry, affecting efficiency.

Way Forward:

1. National Integration: The New Cadre Policy (2017) aims to enhance national integration, rationalize IAS cadre vacancies, and improve administrative efficiency by reallocating officers from states with surplus personnel to those with deficits.
2. Varied Experience: All India Services (AIS) officers should work in different states to gain diverse experiences and learn best practices.
3. Specialized Recruitment: Continue the government’s lateral entry initiative to recruit experts for specialized positions, as recommended by the 2nd ARC.
4. Optimizing Cadre Size: Conduct periodic reviews to reduce unnecessary posts, preventing demoralization and misuse of transfers, and optimizing cadre size.
5. Enhancing Collaboration: Foster cooperation between central and state governments through the Inter-State Council to address AIS officer requirements and serve the public interest effectively.

Lateral Entry

Lateral entry into Civil Services allows qualified candidates to join the bureaucracy directly at senior positions, skipping the usual entry process.

Benefits of Lateral Entry

1. Addressing Officer Shortage: Large states like UP, MP, Rajasthan, and Bihar face a shortage of officers, hindering social and economic growth.
2. Bringing in Specialists: Frequent transfers keep career bureaucrats as generalists. Lateral entry allows experts with advanced knowledge to fill specialized roles, essential in a changing geopolitical and economic environment.
3. Reducing Economic Burden: Traditional recruitment involves long-term costs of salaries, pensions, and perks. Lateral entry can reduce these costs and address issues with non-performing officers due to constitutional safeguards.
4. Encouraging Innovation: Professionals from the private sector can introduce fresh ideas and innovative problem-solving methods, revitalizing a traditionally rigid system.
5. Promoting Healthy Competition: Lateral entry fosters competition among career bureaucrats, encouraging better performance and serving as a “perform or perish” warning.
6. Merit-Based Promotions: Meritocratic promotions bring in professional experts, challenging the IAS to step out of their comfort zones.
7. Existing Practice: The Finance Ministry, RBI, and NITI Aayog have successfully hired professionals like Raghuram Rajan and Arvind Subramanian, demonstrating the benefits of lateral entry.
8. Adapting to New Needs: The IAS was designed for an all-powerful state, but post-1991 liberalization has shifted policy decision space to the private sector and non-profits. New India needs a new bureaucracy to match this shift.
9. Utilizing Experienced Professionals: Recruiting IAS officers at a young age makes it hard to assess their administrative judgment. Lateral entry allows seasoned professionals and experts to fill this gap.

Issues

1. Bypassing UPSC: UPSC, a constitutional body, ensures a credible selection process. Some experts argue that lateral entry bypasses this, raising constitutional concerns.
2. Not a Comprehensive Solution: Lateral entry is seen as a short-term fix for a systemic problem. Major overhauls in the bureaucracy are needed instead.
3. Unattractive Offers: Recruitment terms often aren’t lucrative enough to attract top talent. Recent initiatives offer only 3-year terms with lower pay compared to the private sector.
4. Risk of Privatization: There are fears that lateral entry could lead to privatization, diluting the government’s socialist and welfare roles.
5. Transparency in Recruitment: Ensuring recruits remain independent and maintaining a transparent selection process is crucial to avoid politicization.
6. Threat to IAS Morale: Many IAS officers see lateral entry as a threat to their authority and morale, potentially disrupting the current hierarchy.
7. End of Neutral Civil Service: lateral entry could end the neutral and impartial nature of the civil service, leading to the induction of political loyalists ans ‘spoils system’
8. Risk of Influence from Private Sector: Concerns exist that private businesses might plant individuals to influence government policies.
9. Lack of Familiarity with Bureaucratic Processes – Lateral entrants often lack experience with the administrative procedures and protocols essential for effective governance.
10. Induction of Politically Indoctrinated Persons: There’s a risk that politically motivated individuals might be recruited under the guise of merit.
11. Failed Experiment: An RTI revealed that only seven out of ten joint secretaries recruited through lateral entry are currently working, questioning the effectiveness of the initiative.

Way Forward

1. Institutionalize Transparent Process: The 2nd ARC recommended a clear and transparent process for lateral entry at both Central and state levels. However, resistance from bureaucrats and institutional inertia has hindered progress.
2. Facilitate NRI Entry into Foreign Service: A parliamentary committee, led by Dr. Shashi Tharoor, urged the government to allow Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) to join the foreign service to strengthen the diplomatic corps.
3. Revamp Civil Service Training: In addition to lateral entry, the method of training civil servants needs significant improvement.
4. Involve UPSC in Recruitment: To address concerns, UPSC should handle the recruitment process with clearly defined job requirements.
5. Mandatory District Immersion: Lateral entrants should serve at least five of their first ten years in field postings, ensuring only committed and apt individuals apply.
6. Easing Out Poor Performers: Implement transparent and accountable criteria to remove the worst-performing civil servants after 15 years, creating space for lateral entrants.

 Civil Service Board

The Supreme Court in T.S.R. Subramanian & Ors. Vs UoI & Ors, directed the Centre, State Governments and the Union Territories to constitute Civil Services Boards with high ranking serving officers, who are specialists in their respective fields, to guide and advise the State Government on all service matters, which would ensure good governance, transparency and accountability in Governmental functions. 

Civil Services Board is already in existence at the Centre for making appointments to posts covered under Central Staffing Scheme.

Authority Limits: Recommendations by CSB can be overridden by the political executive, provided reasons are documented.

Recruitment and Promotions: Responsible for entry-level recruitment and managing promotions up to the Joint Secretary level.

Transfer Regulations: Members of the CSB cannot be transferred before completing a two-year tenure unless the board reviews and approves such recommendations.

Final Authority: Despite the CSB’s advisory role, the Chief Minister holds the ultimate decision-making power.

Functions of Civil Services Board:

1. Appointments and Transfers: The CSB makes recommendations for the appointment, transfer, and posting of civil servants, particularly at senior levels. This ensures that these decisions are made transparently and based on merit.
2. Career Progression: It oversees the career progression of officers, including promotions and other career development initiatives.
3. Disciplinary Matters: The board addresses disciplinary issues and ensures that civil servants adhere to ethical and professional standards.
4. Policy Formulation: It plays a role in formulating policies related to the management of civil services, ensuring that these policies are aligned with the broader goals of governance.
5. Performance Evaluation: The CSB is involved in evaluating the performance of civil servants, which is crucial for promotions and other career advancements.

Potential Impact of a Functional CSB:

1. On Governance:
   1. Stability and Protection: CSB ensures stable tenure for civil servants, shielding them from political pressures and boosting public trust in administration.
   2. Effective Policy Implementation: It enables civil servants to meet professional goals and act as efficient agents of public policy.
   3. Good Governance: Promotes good governance, transparency, and accountability, leading to better service delivery.
   4. Reduces Malpractices: Minimizes corruption, nepotism, and favoritism in civil servant transfers, which are often influenced by political interests rather than public good.
   5. Supports Social Initiatives: Facilitates the prioritization and implementation of social and economic policies for the benefit of the poor and marginalized communities.
2. On Civil Services:
   1. Professionalism and Efficiency: CSBs comprising experts from various fields can enhance the professionalism and efficiency of governmental operations.
   2. Preservation of Civil Service Principles: Ensures neutrality, impartiality, and anonymity.
   3. Improved Relationships: Facilitates better cooperation among ministers, legislators, and civil servants, vital for effective governance.

Negative Impact

1. Fixed Tenure:
   1. Reduced Accountability: Fixed tenures can make bureaucrats less accountable to elected officials, potentially leading to overstepping of authority.
   2. Political Influence: Political executives may feel their influence is diminished, as CSB controls transfer recommendations, affecting the ability to address urgent public matters and development planning.
2. Lack of Autonomy – Hota Committee has criticized state CSBs for acting more as a rubber stamp for Chief Minister’s decisions rather than as an independent body.
3. Limited Scope and Authority – The CSB can only recommend transfers and postings, but the final decision rests with the political executive, limiting the board’s impact​
4. Inconsistent Implementation – There is variability in how different states implement CSB guidelines, leading to inconsistencies in administration.
5. Lack of Accountability Mechanisms –  Absence of a formal review process for CSB decisions allows for potential biases and lack of transparency​

Steps taken by government

Reform Measure	Elaboration
Lateral Entry	To bring in fresh talent and expertise from the private sector, the government has appointed domain experts as Joint Secretaries in various ministries.  This initiative aims to infuse professional management practices and new ideas into the civil services.
Mission Karmayogi	This comprehensive reform initiative focuses on building the capacities of civil servants through continuous learning and training.  The iGOT (Integrated Government Online Training) platform offers customized learning paths based on the roles and responsibilities of officers.  This initiative aims to create a more competent and future-ready civil service​.
Performance-Based Appraisal System	The Department of Personnel and Training (DoPT) has revamped the appraisal system to include 360-degree feedback. This holistic approach involves feedback from peers, subordinates, and superiors to ensure a more accurate assessment of officers’ performance, thereby promoting accountability and meritocracy​​.
E-Governance Initiatives	The implementation of e-Office and other digital tools aims to streamline administrative processes, reduce paperwork, and enhance transparency and efficiency.  These initiatives facilitate real-time monitoring and faster decision-making across government departments​​.
Strengthening Accountability Mechanisms	The establishment of independent bodies like the Lokpal and Lokayuktas to investigate and address corruption and misconduct in public offices has enhanced accountability.

Way Forward

Recommendations of 2nd ARC

1. Enhancing Accountability in Civil Services
   1. Implement two key reviews at 14 and 20 years to assess and inform civil servants about their performance and future in service. Discontinue those unfit at the 20-year review.
   2. Suggest a fixed initial employment term of 20 years, with continued service contingent on performance evaluations.
2. Refining Performance Management
   1. Reform performance appraisals to be more consultative and transparent, akin to the PAR system for All India Services.
   2. Include continuous performance evaluations, complete with semi-annual reviews and specific performance targets.
   3. Create a structured Performance Management System (PMS) that aligns with the strategic goals of respective departments.
3. Specialization and Competition in Senior Appointments
   1. After 13 years of service, assign civil servants to specialize in fields like urban development or security to enhance job suitability.
   2. Open senior roles to competitive selection from all services and incorporate open-market hires for top positions.
   3. Establish a Central Civil Services Authority to oversee postings and manage high-level recruitments.
4. Streamlining Disciplinary Processes
   1. Clearly define disciplinary procedures in the Civil Services Law to ensure natural justice while avoiding cumbersome legal processes.
   2. Optimize the inquiry process into a concise interview format, and streamline consultations with the Central Vigilance Commission and UPSC to expedite disciplinary actions.
5. Strengthening Political-Civil Service Relations
   1. Enforce a code of ethics to maintain the impartiality and neutrality of civil servants.
   2. Revise the Prevention of Corruption Act to explicitly penalize abuse of authority and obstruction of justice.
   3. Regularize recruitment practices to enhance fairness and reduce potential for corruption, emphasizing competitive exams over interviews.
6. Other Vital Recommendations
   1. Promote specialized public administration education through National Institutes and select universities to prepare candidates specifically for civil services.
   2. Adjust age and attempt limits for Civil Services Exams based on categories to ensure equitable opportunities.
   3. Mandate regular and career-stage specific training for civil servants, linking training completion to promotions and confirmations.
   4. Recognize exemplary service through national and local awards, and ensure merit-based selection for international assignments by the Central Civil Services Authority.

Recommendations of the Hota Committee

1. Fixed Tenure for Officers: Officers in higher civil services should have a guaranteed tenure of at least three years with set annual performance goals.
2. Enactment of a Civil Services Act: A Civil Services Act is recommended to give statutory status to the Civil Services Board/Establishment Board at both state and central government levels.
3. Oversight on Chief Minister’s Decisions: If a Chief Minister overrides the recommendations of the Civil Services Board/Establishment Board, they must provide written reasons for their decision.
4. Grievance Redressal Mechanism: Officers transferred before completing their tenure, even by order of the Chief Minister, can appeal to a three-member Ombudsman.
5. Accountability for Premature Transfers: The Ombudsman must report any premature transfers to the state Governor, who will then present this report to the State Legislature as part of an Annual Report.

Supreme Court Directives

In 2013, the Supreme Court issued directives to shield civil servants from political interference and prevent their frequent reassignment by political leaders. These guidelines were outlined in T.S.R. Subramanian vs. Union of India case.

1. Actions Based on Written Directives: Civil servants, especially those in the IAS and other All India Services, must base decisions solely on written communications to ensure accountability.
2. Formation of Civil Services Board (CSB): Establish a Civil Services Board, led by the Cabinet Secretary nationally and chief secretaries at the state level, to manage IAS, IFS, and IPS officer transfers and postings. Overrides by political executives require written justification.
3. Civil Services Act Legislation: Advocate for the passage of a Civil Services Act under Article 309 to officially set up and delineate the functions of the CSB.
4. Fixed Minimum Tenures: Implement guaranteed fixed tenures for civil servants to promote job stability and minimize arbitrary reassignments.
5. Authority for Group ‘B’ Officer Transfers: Transfer responsibilities for Group ‘B’ officers are to be assigned to heads of departments, aiming to reduce extensive political interference.
6. Reduction of Political Interference: Restrict ministerial involvement in civil servant transfers and postings strictly to the chief minister, aiming to lessen undue political influence.

Right to Information Act, 2005 “Where a society has chosen to accept democracy as its creedal faith, it is elementary that the citizens ought to know what their government is doing.” – Justice P N Bhagwati

“Information is the currency of democracy,” – Thomas Jefferson

Right to Information Act, 2005

The Right to Information (RTI) Act, enacted in 2005, aims to enhance transparency, and accountability, and curb corruption.

Constitutional Basis:

• Article 21: RTI is a derivative right under this article, ensuring the protection of life and personal liberty.
• Article 19(1)(a): RTI complements the fundamental right to freedom of speech and expression, which includes the Right to Know.

Goals of the RTI Act:

1. Citizen Empowerment: Informed Citizenry
   1. Allows citizens to question and review government actions.
   2. Empower individuals to influence government policies and schemes.
   3. Enhances transparency and accountability by providing the right to access state information.
2. Information Access:
   1. Ensures proactive disclosure and reporting.
   2. Improves record-keeping in government offices.
   3. Mandates dedicated public information officers in all government departments.
   4. Supreme Court ruling: RTI Act overrides the Official Secrets Act, fostering greater transparency.
3. Promoting Good Governance:
   1. Utilized for women’s rights, youth development, democratic rights, and the rights of the underprivileged.
   2. Addresses misuse of executive power and strengthens participatory governance.
   3. Helps expose various scams, such as the Crawford Market redevelopment issues in Mumbai.
4. Right to Know: RTI is a crucial tool for citizens to promote, protect, and defend their right to know.

Supreme Court on Right to Information:

1. Bennett Coleman and Co. v. Union of India (1973): Recognized the right to information as part of the right to freedom of speech and expression under Article 19(1)(a).
2. Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975): Emphasized that secrecy in public affairs is against the public interest, and officials must explain and justify their actions to prevent oppression and corruption.
3. SP Gupta v. Union of India (1981): Affirmed the public’s right to know about every public act and transaction by public officials.
4. People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India (1996): Held that public scrutiny is essential for ensuring clean and transparent governance.

Evolution of the RTI Act in India

Year	Event	Details
1997	Janata Government Working Group	Formed to consider modifying the Official Secrets Act, 1923, for greater public access to information.
1986	Supreme Court Directive	In Mr. Kulwal vs Jaipur Municipal Corporation, the court stated that Article 19 of the Constitution implies the Right to Information.
1990	Emphasis by Prime Minister V.P. Singh	tressed the importance of RTI as a legislated right, but failed to enact due to political instability.
1994	MKSS Grassroots Campaign	Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan began advocating for RTI, focusing on rural development transparency in Rajasthan.
1995	Drafting of RTI Act	Social activists formulated a draft RTI Act at a meeting at LBSNAA, Mussoorie.
1996	Founding of NCPRI	The National Campaign for People’s Right to Information was established to push for RTI legislation.
1997	1997 Tamil Nadu’s RTI Law	Tamil Nadu became the first state in India to pass a Right to Information law.
2002	Freedom of Information Act	The first central RTI legislation was passed but not implemented.
2005	Enactment of RTI Act	The amended Right to Information Act was passed and enacted.

Key Features of the RTI Act, 2005:

1. Right to Information (Section 3): Citizens have the right to access information from public authorities.
2. Obligations of Public Authorities (Section 4): Public authorities must maintain and proactively disclose information.
3. Designation of Public Information Officers (PIOs) (Section 5): Public authorities must designate PIOs to handle requests and provide information.
4. Request for Obtaining Information (Section 6): Citizens can submit a request in writing or electronically to the PIO, specifying the information required.
5. Disposal of Request (Section 7): PIOs must respond to requests within 30 days. If the information concerns the life or liberty of a person, the response time is 48 hours.
6. Exemptions from Disclosure (Section 8): 
   • Section 8(1):
     1. Sensitive Information:
        • Affects India’s sovereignty, security, or economic interests.
        • Damages foreign relations.
        • Incites offenses.
     2. Court-Restricted Data: Forbidden by courts or constitutes contempt of court.
     3. Parliamentary Privilege: Breaches the privilege of Parliament or State Legislature.
     4. Trade Secrets and Intellectual Property: Harms the competitive position unless public interest justifies disclosure.
     5. Confidential Information: Received from foreign governments.
     6. Cabinet Documents: Includes deliberations of the Council of Ministers and other officials (disclosed after decisions are made).
     7. Personal Data Unless it serves a greater public interest.
   • Section 8(2): Allows disclosure of exempt information under the Official Secrets Act, 1923, if it serves the public interest.
7. Third-Party Information (Section 11): In case the requested information relates to a third party, the PIO must inform the third party within five days and take their representation into account.
8. Constitution of Information Commissions (Section 12 & 15): Establishment of the Central Information Commission (CIC) and State Information Commissions (SICs).
9. Powers and Functions of Information Commissions (Section 18 & 19): CIC and SICs have the authority to receive complaints, conduct inquiries, and handle appeals regarding RTI requests.
   • Appeals process:
     • First appeal to the departmental First Appellate Authority.
     • Second appeal to the Central or State Information Commission.
10. Penalties (Section 20): Imposes penalties on PIOs for non-compliance, including Rs. 250 per day of delay, up to a maximum of Rs. 25,000.
11. Jurisdiction of Courts (Section 23): Courts are barred from entertaining suits or applications challenging any order made under the RTI Act. Appeals against CIC/SIC orders can only be made to the High Court.
12. Protection of Action Taken in Good Faith (Section 21): Provides protection to PIOs from any legal action for anything done in good faith while performing their duties under the Act.
13. Timely Response:
    1. Information must be provided within 30 days, or 48 hours for urgent matters related to life and liberty.
    2. Penalties for delays and disciplinary actions for officials who deny information with malafide intent.

Importance of RTI:

1. Promotes Transparency and Accountability: By allowing access to information, it holds public officials accountable for their actions and decisions, reducing corruption and enhancing governance.
2. Empowers Citizens: Citizens can use RTI to obtain information on public services, local development projects, and government spending, enabling them to advocate for their rights and better services.
3. Strengthens Democracy: RTI promotes an informed citizenry, which is crucial for a functioning democracy. It ensures that citizens have the information needed to make informed choices and hold their representatives accountable.
4. Facilitates Investigative Journalism: RTI is a powerful tool for journalists, enabling them to access government records and documents, which are essential for investigative reporting.
5. Enhances Government Efficiency: By mandating transparency, RTI can lead to more efficient and effective government administration. RTI applications have revealed delays and mismanagement in public services, prompting authorities to streamline processes and improve service delivery.
6. Protects Public Interest: RTI helps in protecting public interest by ensuring that government actions are subject to public scrutiny. It acts as a deterrent against arbitrary and unjust decisions.
7. Empowerment of Marginalized Communities: Enables poor communities to use information to demand their rights.
8. Grievance Redressal: Establishes Central and State Information Commissions to address RTI-related complaints.

Key Achievements of RTI:

1. Effective Anti-Corruption Mechanism: Recognized as a top anti-corruption tool, ranking fourth out of 111 countries in 2016 for promoting transparency and accountability.
2. Case Studies:
   • Exposure of Major Scams:
     • 2G Spectrum Scam: An RTI filed by activist Subhash Chandra Agrawal revealed massive corruption in the telecom sector during the UPA regime.
     • Misappropriation of Relief Funds:
       • In 2008, an RTI application by a Punjab NGO uncovered the misuse of funds meant for Kargil war and disaster victims by local Indian Red Cross Society officials.
       • The responsible officials were charged with fraud, and the misused funds were transferred to the Prime Minister’s Relief Fund.
     • Adarsh Society Scam and Assam Public Distribution Scam: RTI played a crucial role in exposing these scams, leading to legal actions and systemic reforms.
   • Local Accountability:
     • Ration Shop Misconduct in Bikaner: Villagers used RTI to obtain records of their local ration shop, uncovering the illegal sale of grains meant for the poor. The corrupt dealer was removed, and the villagers received compensation equivalent to the stolen grains.

RTI Act Amendment 2019:

Reasons for Amendment:

1. Inconsistent implementation across states.
2. Lack of clarity regarding terms and conditions of service for Information Commissioners.
3. Challenges in maintaining the independence of Information Commissions.

Key Changes Brought by the 2019 Amendment:

Aspect	RTI Act 2005	RTI Amendment 2019
Tenure of Information Commissioners	Fixed tenure of five years for the Chief Information Commissioner (CIC) and Information Commissioners.	The Central Government will notify the tenure of all Information Commissioners (at both central and state levels).
Quantum of Salary	CIC and Central Information Commissioners were paid equivalent to the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and Election Commissioners. State Information Commissioners were paid equivalent to the Chief Secretary of the state.	Salaries and allowances of Information Commissioners will be determined by the Central Government.
Deductions in Salary	If Information Commissioners were receiving pension or other retirement benefits, their salaries were adjusted accordingly.	These provisions have been removed, allowing for full salary without deductions.

Criticism of the Amendments:

1. Impact on Federalism: The central government now controls the tenure and salaries of state information commissioners, reducing the autonomy of state governments.
2. Threat to Transparency and Accountability: The fixed tenure and salary that provided relative independence to the Chief Information Commissioner (CIC) and Information Commissioners (ICs) have been removed.
   1. Risk of Manipulation: The new provisions may turn CIC and ICs into tools for protecting sensitive government information.
   2. Loss of Basic Guarantees: Essential tenure guarantees for independent oversight institutions like the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC), Chief Election Commissioner (CEC), and Lokpal have been undermined.

Issues in Implementing the RTI Act

1. Low Utilization: Despite 40 to 60 lakh RTI applications filed annually, less than 3% of Indian citizens have ever filed an RTI plea.
2. Ineffective Information Delivery: A 2018-19 report by Satark Nagrik Sangathan (SSN) and the Centre for Equity Studies (CES) revealed that less than 45% of applicants received the information they sought. Of the 55% who didn’t, fewer than 10% filed appeals.
3. Decline in Data Reporting: A study by the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative noted a significant drop in mandatory data reporting by Ministries and Departments to the CIC between 2012-13 and 2018-19.
4. Backlog of Appeals: The CIC takes an average of 388 days to dispose of a case. As of June 30, 2021, 2.56 lakh appeals were pending with 26 Information Commissions. In Odisha, it takes over 6 years to dispose of a matter, according to the Satark Nagrik Sangathan (SNS) 2021 report.
5. Public Awareness:
   1. Low Awareness Levels: Less than 35% in rural areas and 40% in urban areas are aware of the RTI Act, as per the RTI Assessment and Advocacy Group (RaaG) 2013 survey.
   2. Limited Process Knowledge: Even fewer people know the complete process of seeking information.
6. Filing Constraints: Absence of user guides causes hardship in understanding the RTI request process.
7. Quality of Information: Applicants often receive raw data instead of precise information.
8. Attitude of Public Information Officers (PIOs): 59% of respondents in a survey rated PIOs’ courteousness as “poor” or “just fair,” discouraging RTI applications.
9. Outdated Practices: Ineffective record management leads to delays in processing RTI applications.
10. Monitoring and Review: No centralized database for RTI applicants exists.
11. Motivation and Resources for PIOs: PIOs often lack motivation and resources to implement the RTI Act effectively.
12. Infrastructure Issues: Lack of printers, computers, and other necessary infrastructure.
13. Minimal IT Integration: Low use of Information Technology for handling RTI applications.
14. Enforcement Powers: CIC has minimal enforcement powers, making it ineffective in some cases (e.g., bringing political parties under RTI).
15. High Vacancies: As per a 2020 report by Satark Nagrik Sangathan (SNS) and Centre for Equity Studies (CES), 31% of information commissions were without a chief commissioner. Some states like Odisha, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, and Tripura are severely understaffed or defunct.
16. Safety Concerns: RTI activists face threats and attacks.
17. Rejection of Applications: Applications are sometimes rejected for trivial reasons like not being typed or written in English.
18. Applicability Issues:
    1. Political Parties and Funding: Remain outside the RTI’s scope.
    2. Qualified Applicability: Exemptions for judiciary and intellectual property rights (e.g., RBI denying information on demonetization).
    3. Private Sector: Major service providers in the private sector are not adequately covered under RTI.

Misuse of the RTI Act

“The Right to Information Act is a good law, but it is being abused.”    — Chief Justice S.H. Kapadia

The RTI Act is often misused due to the lack of a requirement for applicants to demonstrate a justified reason for seeking information (locus standi).

1. Evasion of Clauses like Section 2(h): Government evades this clause by denying public authority status to certain bodies, like the PM-CARES fund.
2. Non-Compliance: The Act lacks provisions to hold officials in contempt for not complying with information commission orders, reducing its effectiveness.
3. Settling Scores: Some individuals misuse RTI to settle personal grudges.
4. Pressure Tactics: RTI is used to intimidate and harass senior officials. For example, a teacher in Vidya Bharti school, Delhi, filed around 15 RTI petitions to harass authorities.
5. Personal Vendetta: RTI is misused to settle personal disputes. In Mr. Narayan Singh vs Delhi Transport Corporation, the CIC noted the misuse of RTI for personal vendetta.
6. Extortion: Some people use RTI to blackmail others, preventing officials from making decisions.
7. Data Collection: RTI is sometimes used for non-essential purposes, such as PhD students using it to gather data for their theses.

Way Forward

1. Strengthen Implementation:
   1. Enhance Public Awareness: Conduct extensive awareness campaigns to educate citizens about the proper use of RTI.
   2. Improve Infrastructure: Invest in better infrastructure, such as computers and printers, for processing RTI requests.
   3. Utilize Information Technology: Integrate IT solutions to streamline the acceptance and processing of RTI applications.
2. Enhance Accountability:
   1. Ensure Compliance: Strengthen provisions for holding officials accountable for non-compliance with RTI orders.
   2. Monitor and Review: Establish a centralized database for RTI applications and implement regular monitoring and review mechanisms.
3. Support Information Commissions:
   1. Address Vacancies: Fill vacancies in Information Commissions promptly to reduce backlog.
   2. Training for PIOs: Provide regular training for Public Information Officers to enhance their understanding and implementation of the RTI Act.

Social audit is a collaborative process in which the public, particularly the beneficiaries, actively participate in evaluating the performance of government programs and projects. This form of audit allows people to directly assess and oversee the effectiveness of governmental initiatives, together with the administration

Evolution of Social Audit in India:

1. Origin: Social audit originates from “Corporate Social Responsibility” (CSR), first adopted in Western countries. It was later incorporated by various corporate and social institutions worldwide. In the 1980s, it was introduced in the public sector, driven by a shift towards democratic governance and increased citizen participation.
2. 1979: In India, the concept of social audit was first initiated by Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) in Jamshedpur.
3. 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act: The momentum for social audit increased with the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, which empowered Gram Sabhas to audit Panchayat accounts.
4. Civil Society Initiatives (1990s onwards): Various civil society organizations and movements began conducting social audits to monitor the performance of various institutions.
5. 9th Five-Year Plan (2002-2007): It emphasized the role of Gram Sabhas in conducting social audits for the effective functioning of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).
6. Right to Information Act, 2005: This act facilitated the indirect engagement of citizens in the social auditing of government operations.
7. MGNREGA 2006: The inclusion of Section 17, mandating transparency and public scrutiny, significantly enhanced the relevance and acceptance of social audit globally.
8. Social Audit Units (SAU): Established by many states, these units facilitate the social audit of programs like Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY), Midday Meal Scheme (MDM), etc.
9. Meghalaya Social Audit Act, 2017: Meghalaya became the first state in India to enact legislation that institutionalizes the social audit of government schemes and programs as a governance mechanism.

Objectives of Social Audit

1. Transparency and Accountability: Enhance transparency and accountability in government policy implementation.
2. Resource Allocation: Ensure proper utilization of funds and prioritize development activities.
3. Policy Scrutiny: Examine various policy decisions and identify any gaps in funding and outcomes.
4. Program Efficiency: Boost the efficacy and efficiency of local development programs, considering the interests of stakeholders.
5. Awareness Creation: Raise awareness among beneficiaries and providers of local social and productive services.

Principles of Social Audit:

1. Inclusivity: Incorporate the viewpoints of all stakeholders affected by decisions.
2. Comprehensive & Comparative: Evaluate and report on every aspect of an organization’s performance.
3. Participatory: Foster stakeholder engagement and value sharing.
4. Consistency: Regularly produce social accounts to integrate the practice into the organization’s culture.
5. Integrity: Ensure that social accounts are audited by an impartial and experienced individual or agency.
6. Transparency: Make audited accounts accessible to stakeholders and the broader community to support transparency and accountability.

Importance of Social Audit in India:

1. Participatory Governance: Public meetings (Jansunwais) review RTI records, identify issues, correct schemes, reduce secrecy, and build trust. Eg: Andhra Pradesh’s MGNREGA Jansunwais addressed job card and wage payment discrepancies.
2. Innovative Approach: Social audits compare real outcomes with official records. Eg: Rajasthan’s PDS audits revealed ration distribution issues, leading to reforms.
3. Increased Transparency: Audits publicize official information, raising awareness. Eg: PMAY audits published beneficiary lists and construction progress online.
4. Improved Accountability: Audits hold officials accountable for poor implementation. Eg: Bihar’s MDM Scheme audits exposed meal distribution irregularities, resulting in disciplinary actions.
5. Local Oversight: Gram Sabhas conduct regular project audits, ensuring community involvement. Eg: Kerala’s People’s Planning Campaign includes regular audits by Gram Sabhas.
6. Deters Corruption and Malpractices – In Rajasthan, social audits have exposed irregularities in various public works and services, leading to corrective actions and prosecutions.
7. Improves Public Service Delivery – Social audits in the public distribution system (PDS) have helped to identify and rectify issues such as fake ration cards and improper allocation of food grains .

Challenges in Implementing Social Audit:

1. Lack of Legal Backing – While social audits are mandated in several schemes, there is no comprehensive legal framework ensuring their implementation and follow-up.
2. Lack of Political and Administrative Will: SA often seen as a formality with no real outcomes due to reluctance to share information and fear of scrutiny.
3. Low Public Awareness and Participation: Insufficient awareness, incentives, interest, and capacity among the public to engage in SA meaningfully.
4. Institutional Issues: No permanent structure, lack of independence, inadequate staffing in SAUs, no strict penalties for non-compliance, and no independent body to act on SA findings.
5. Complexity and Scope: Audits covering large and multi-faceted schemes like MGNREGA can be overwhelming, leading to incomplete or superficial assessments.
6. Follow-Up and Action on Findings: According to the Ministry of Rural Development, a significant percentage of social audit recommendations remain unaddressed 
7. Insufficient Resources: Many social audit units are underfunded and understaffed, making it difficult to conduct thorough audits. Eg- social audits of MGNREGA
8. Poor Record Keeping: Inconsistent and fragmented government data hampers comprehensive audits.
9. Localized and Sporadic Audits: SA are often localized, sporadic, and ad-hoc, leading to inconsistent impacts and reduced relevance due to delays.
10. Weak Civil Society Support: Few active and committed civil society organizations to facilitate social audits and train stakeholders.

Government Steps to Institutionalize Social Audit:

1. Information-Monitoring, Evaluation, and Social Audit (I-MESA): Launched by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment in FY 2021-22 to audit all department schemes using State SAUs and NIRD&PR.
2. Short-term Certificate Course: Developed for district-block resource persons and SHGs in collaboration with TISS and NIRD&PR, Hyderabad.
3. Institutionalizing SAs in Rural Schemes: Implemented in major schemes like the National Social Assistance Programme and PM Awas Yojana-Gramin, including funds from the 14th Finance Commission.
4. Training Women SHGs: Approximately 60,000 women SHGs trained through a special certificate course to conduct social audits.
5. Directorates of SAs: Established in various states with resource persons to conduct audits of government schemes.
6. Operational Guidelines: Issued by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation for social audit methodologies across different schemes.
7. Civil Society Engagement: Example: MV Foundation conducted social audits of Mid-Day Meals in Andhra Pradesh, focusing on child labor and education rights.

Way Forward:

1. Raise Awareness and Build Capacity: Educate stakeholders to hold authorities accountable. Utilisation of Media to popularize social audits.
2. Mandatory Real-Time Data Disclosure: Require proactive sharing of financial data and beneficiary lists. Use technology like MIS for transparency.
3. Increase Funding and Staffing for SAUs: Ensure SAUs are well-funded and staffed independently, free from political influence.
4. Legal Sanctions and Punitive Actions: Implement legal consequences based on social audit findings to build public trust. Meghalaya’s law can serve as a model.
5. Promote Civil Society Participation: Encourage civil society involvement to enhance capacity and streamline processes. As Jharkhand includes CSO representatives in social audit panels.
6. Increase Audit Frequency: Conduct social audits more frequently. Every Gram Panchayat should have an audit every six months.
7. Training Programs: Implement training on social audit methods, report preparation, and presentation at Gram Sabha. Establish district teams of social audit experts for training.
8. Enact National Law for Social Audits: Create a national law to empower citizens and strengthen grassroots democracy.

Transparency and Accountability: [2021] An independent and empowered social audit mechanism is an absolute must in every sphere of public service, including the judiciary, to ensure performance, accountability, and ethical conduct. Elaborate.

[2020] “Recent amendments to the Right to Information Act will have a profound impact on the autonomy and independence of the Information Commission”. Discuss.

[2019] There is a view that the Officials Secrets Act is an obstacle to the implementation of RTI Act. Do you agree with this view? Discuss.

[2018] The Citizen’s Charter is an ideal instrument of organisational transparency and accountability, but it has its own limitations. Identify the limitations and suggest measures for greater effectiveness of the Citizen’s Charters.

[2016] Effectiveness of the government system at various levels and people’s participation in the governance system are interdependent. Discuss their relationship with each other in the context of India.

[2015] If an amendment bill to the Whistleblowers Protection Act 2011 tabled in the Parliament is passed, there maybe no on left to protect. Critically Evaluate.

[2013] Though Citizen’s charters have been formulated by many public service delivery organisations, there is no corresponding improvement in the level of citizens’ satisfaction and quality of services being provided.Analyse.

Transparency

Democracy must be built through open societies that share information. When there is information, there is enlightenment. When there is debate, there are solutions.” – James Bovard

“Where a society has chosen to accept democracy as its creedal faith, it is elementary that the citizens ought to know what their government is doing.”  – Justice P N Bhagwati.

“Corruption thrives in the shadows, and transparency is the most effective antidote to corruption.” – Daniel Kaufmann

“A popular Government without popular information or the means of acquiring it is but a Prologue to a Farce or a Tragedy or perhaps both.” – James Madison 

“There can be no faith in government if our highest offices are excused from scrutiny—they should be setting the example of transparency.”  – Edward Snowden

“Transparency refers to the increased flow of timely and reliable economic, social, and political information, which is accessible to all relevant stakeholders, promoting accountability and informed decision-making.” – World bank

As a principle, it mandates that public officials to act in a manner that is visible, predictable, and understandable. This openness promotes participation and accountability, allowing third parties to easily perceive and understand the actions being performed.

Transparency and Good Governance

1. Enhancing Accountability
   • Visibility of Actions: When government actions and decisions are transparent, public officials can be held accountable for their actions. Eg- RTI
   • Monitoring and Evaluation: Citizens and civil society organizations can monitor government performance, ensuring that officials meet their responsibilities and objectives. Eg– Public Financial Management System (PFMS) enables real-time tracking of government expenditures
2. Promoting Public Participation
   • Informed Citizenry: Transparency provides citizens with the information they need to engage meaningfully in governance processes. Eg- MyGov platform
   • Inclusive Decision-Making: Open access to information allows diverse voices to be heard, leading to more inclusive and representative decision-making.
3. Building Trust and Legitimacy
   • Trust in Institutions: Transparency builds public trust in government institutions by demonstrating that they operate openly and honestly.
   • Legitimacy of Governance: When citizens can see and understand government actions, they are more likely to view the government as legitimate and trustworthy.
4. Preventing Corruption
   • Deterrence: The risk of exposure and public scrutiny deters corrupt practices.
   • Detection: Transparent processes make it easier to detect and address corruption when it occurs. Eg- The Public Procurement Portal publishes details of government contracts and tenders, facilitating the detection of irregularities
5. Improving Efficiency and Effectiveness
   • Better Decision-Making: Access to comprehensive and accurate information allows for more informed and effective decision-making.
   • Resource Allocation: Transparency in budgeting and spending ensures that resources are allocated efficiently and effectively, reducing waste and mismanagement.
6. Strengthening the Rule of Law
   • Legal Clarity: Transparency in the legal and regulatory processes ensures that laws and regulations are clear and accessible to all.
   • Equal Enforcement: Open access to legal information helps ensure that laws are applied equally and fairly.

Challenges

1. Information Overload – Complex and voluminous data on government websites without proper summarization or categorization can lead to confusion and reduced public engagement.
2. Lack of institutionalization of social audits and citizen charters
3. Technological Barriers – Despite initiatives like Digital India, a significant digital divide still exists, limiting the reach of online transparency initiatives.
4. Political Resistance – Government officials or political leaders may resist transparency initiatives to maintain control, and power, or hide malpractices. Eg- exclusion of political parties under RTI
5. Cultural Factors – In some cultures, secrecy in governance is historically entrenched. In societies where hierarchical structures dominate, there may be resistance to transparency as it challenges traditional power dynamics.
6. Lack of Awareness and Education – Low awareness of the RTI Act among rural populations limits its effectiveness in promoting transparency.
7. Bureaucratic Hurdles – Complicated processes for filing RTI requests or accessing public records discourage citizens from seeking information.
8. Security Vs Transparency – Sensitive information related to defense or internal security is often exempt from public disclosure, potentially leading to a lack of transparency in certain areas.
9. Resource Constraints – Lack of adequate funding for maintaining and updating open data portals affect the quality and timeliness of information provided.
10. Legal Limitations – Inadequate whistleblower protection laws deter individuals from disclosing information about corruption or malpractice.
11. Data Integrity and Quality – Inaccurate or outdated information on government websites can mislead the public and undermine trust in transparency initiatives.

Strategies to Increase Transparency in Governance

1. Access to Information 
   • Establish records management laws and computerisation
   • Publish government documents (e.g., ‘M’ books) on official websites
   • Implement web-based approval systems for various processes
2. Ethics and Integrity
   • Develop and implement a model code of conduct for political representatives, civil service, judiciary, and civil society groups
   • Remove all discretionary powers provided to officials under the law to prevent misappropriation
   • Public Hearings & Meetings: Ensure transparency in procedures and systems by opening them up for public review. Also, Conduct social audits and involve the public in policy-making processes.
3. Institutional Reforms
   • Proactive Disclosure of Information: Government departments should automatically disclose important information. This includes budgets, audits, and decision-making processes.
   • Annual Transparency Reports: Governments should publish annual reports detailing their activities, budget utilization, and audits to keep the public informed and engaged.
   • Public Service Agreements: Establish agreements for the delivery of services by executive agencies, holding them accountable objectively and transparently
   • Stakeholder Participation: Involve citizen committees, Citizen Boards and focus groups in the decision-making process
   • Easy Access to Government Officials: Make contact numbers of senior officials available for grievance registration
   • Citizen Service Facilitation Counters: Set up counters to facilitate public access to government services and information
4. Assessment and Monitoring
   • Performance Measurement and Management through performance indicators and annual performance white papers
   • Citizens’ Charter Implementation: Develop and implement citizens’ charters in all government departments to provide timelines for service delivery

Government Initiatives to Increase Transparency

1. Right to Information Act, 2005: 
2. Citizen Charter Bill, 2011: Mandates public authorities to deliver services within specified timelines and establishes mechanisms for grievances if service commitments are not met.
3. E-Governance Initiatives: Utilizes ICT, including the Digital India mission, JAM trinity, and Direct Benefit Transfer, to improve public access to government information and services. 
4. Simplifying Processes: The government has eliminated approximately 1,500 outdated rules and laws to streamline governance and increase transparency. Measures such as self-attestation and the elimination of interviews for junior positions also contribute to these goals.
5. AEBAS– Aadhar Enabled Biometric Attendance enables real-time and flawless monitoring of employee attendance thereby ensuring punctuality among employees,
6. e-Office aims to usher in more efficient, effective, and transparent inter-government and intra-government transactions and processes.
7. GeM: – Government e-Market (GeM) provided rich listing products for individual categories of Goods and Services, transparency and ease of buying, and a user-friendly dashboard for buying and monitoring supplies and payment.
8. The Web Responsive Pensioner’s Service provides a single-point web solution for pensioners to obtain comprehensive information relating to the status of the pension processing and payment.
9. The CAG’s Audit reports after they are tabled in the Parliament/Legislature, are uploaded on the website of CAG. Information related to the status of pension, GPF, and Gazetted Entitlement cases is available on the websites of the respective Account General’s Office.

Transparency Vs Privacy

“There is a fine balance required to be maintained between the right to information and the right to privacy, which stems out of the fundamental right to life and liberty. The citizens’ right to know should definitely be circumscribed if disclosure of information encroaches upon someone’s personal privacy. But where to draw the line is a complicated question.”                              – Dr. Manmohan Singh

Emphasizing Transparency:

1. Essential Nature: during the COVID-19 pandemic, the dissemination of affected individuals’ travel histories helped trace virus transmission chains, despite concerns about personal privacy.
2. Not Absolute: The Supreme Court’s judgment in the Puttaswamy case (2017) declared privacy a fundamental right but not an absolute one. This ruling supports the notion that personal data can be used for valid purposes, aligning with public health and safety.
3. Prevent Misuse: The RTI Act aims to curb the misuse of privacy claims that shield information necessary for public scrutiny.
4. Legal Safeguards: Under the RTI Act, Section 8(1)j, information that concerns personal privacy can be disclosed if there is an overriding public interest. Eg.- asset declarations by politicians.
5. Public Over Private: The principle that public interest trumps personal privacy is foundational to transparency laws.

Upholding Privacy:

1. Personal Sovereignty: The principle of “informational self-determination,” recognized internationally, supports individuals’ control over their personal data, starkly contrasting with approaches in totalitarian states.
2. Ensure Dignity: Privacy is linked to dignity and autonomy, essential for a free life.
3. Modern Needs: As the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) expands, laws need to evolve to protect personal data. Eg.- Personal Data Protection Bill.
4. Risk of Surveillance: The potential for surveillance and data misuse is a significant concern, incidents like the Pegasus spyware scandal, shows the risks of privacy breaches when government authorities have unrestricted access to personal data.

Balancing the two Rights:

Aspect	Balancing Transparency and Privacy
Legal and Ethical Standards	Comply with transparency laws and ethical guidelines while also adhering to data protection laws.
Consent and Control	Inform individuals about data collection and use, obtain explicit consent, and provide control over their data.
Security Measures	Disclose security measures to build trust and implement robust security protocols to protect data.
Data Anonymization	Share aggregated data for transparency while removing personally identifiable information to maintain privacy.
Transparency Reports	Regularly publish transparency reports and highlight steps taken to protect privacy.
Data Minimization	Collect only necessary data for transparency purposes and avoid collecting excessive or irrelevant information.
Access Controls	Limit access to data to authorized personnel only and implement role-based access controls to protect sensitive information.
User Rights	Allow individuals to access information about data usage and enable them to access, correct, and delete their data.
Accountability Mechanisms	Establish frameworks for oversight and appoint data protection officers or committees to ensure compliance.
Setting Boundaries	It’s critical to clearly define the extent to which private information can be disclosed, which will require continuous dialogue and legislative refinement.

Transparency and Confidentiality

Necessity of National Security Measures:

Aspect	Elaboration
National Security	Protects information related to national security and public safety. Eg- details of surgical strikes
Personal Privacy	Eg- Confidentiality of Aadhaar data, with stringent measures to protect citizens’ biometric information.
Effective Policy Formulation	Incrementalism in Policy Making supports the idea that confidential discussions lead to better policy decisions. Eg- Cabinet Committee meetings
Whistleblower Protection	Safeguards individuals who report corruption or misconduct from retaliation and ensure safety.
Strategic Advantage	Strategic Management Theory highlights the importance of secrecy in achieving competitive and operational advantages.
Diplomatic Relations	Confidential negotiations during the India-China border talks to ensure sensitive discussions remain undisclosed
Public Order and Stability	Withholding specific details of anti-terror operations in Jammu and Kashmir to avoid public panic and ensure operational success.
Protecting Sensitive Information	Encryption of sensitive government communications to prevent cyberattacks, as emphasized after incidents like the malware attack on Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant

Way Forward:

1. Balance Secrecy and Disclosure: According to RTI Act’s Section 8(2), public interest can override secrecy when disclosure is more beneficial than harmful.
2. Reducing Overclassification: Officials should justify their reasons for classifying information.
3. Reform the Official Secrets Act: Based on the 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission’s (ARC) recommendation, the OSA should be replaced with more transparent provisions within the National Security Act to suit a democratic society.

Accountability

“It is wrong and immoral to seek to escape the consequences of one’s acts.” –Mahatma Gandhi

“A body of men holding themselves accountable to nobody ought not to be trusted by anybody.” –  Thomas Paine

Accountability means decision-makers must justify their actions and inactions to those impacted by these decisions. It extends beyond mere hierarchical obligations to include responsibilities towards all stakeholders, such as citizens and civil society.

Various Forms of Accountability

1. External Accountability: Refers to the government’s responsibility to its citizens, primarily enforced via electoral processes.
2. Internal Accountability: Deals with the internal controls, checks, and balances within government agencies. Eg- the CAG of India plays a crucial role in auditing government expenditures, ensuring internal accountability.
3. Financial Accountability: Involves the review of financial requests from various departments by parliamentary committees.
4. Ethical Accountability: Concerns the ethical obligations between organizations and their members.
5. Professional Accountability: Relates to adherence to professional standards and codes of conduct enforced by employers or professional bodies.
6. Legal Accountability: Applies when individuals or organizations are held responsible under legal statutes.
7. Political Accountability: Enables citizens to hold elected officials accountable, crucial for upholding democratic values and human rights.

Mechanisms of Accountability

Category	Mechanism	Example
Constitutiona	Judiciary	Supreme Court’s ruling on Section 377 decriminalizing homosexuality.
	Parliamentary Committees	PAC review of MGNREGA scheme implementation.
	Article 311	Provides safeguards to civil servants against arbitrary dismissal, removal, or reduction in rank.
Legal	RTI Act	RTI request revealing Aadhaar data breach in 2017.
	Whistleblower Protection	Protection under the Whistle Blowers Protection Act for an MCD employee.
	Lokpal and Lokayuktas	Karnataka Lokayukta’s chargesheet against senior IAS officer.
Institutional	CAG	CAG report on 2G spectrum allocation case.
	CVC	Investigation of corruption in the Food Corporation of India in 2021.
	Election Commission of India (ECI)	ECI’s cancellation of Vellore Lok Sabha election in 2019.
	Central Information Commission (CIC	CIC’s directive to RBI to disclose willful defaulters list in 2015.
	CPGRAMS	A centralized system to monitor and address public grievances related to administrative functions.
Societal	Media and Civil Society	Media investigation into PM CARES Fund management in 2020
	Participatory Budgeting	Citizens directly participate in budget formulation and monitoring the execution at the local government level. Eg- Gram Sabha
	Citizen Report Card	Participatory surveys provide quantitative feedback to service providers on citizens’ satisfaction with public services.
	Social Audit	Social audits of MGNREGA in Andhra Pradesh; Social audit initiatives by the Society for Social Audit, Accountability, and Transparency (SSAAT) in Telangana.
	Public Hearings (Jan Sunwai)	Jan Sunwais conducted by MKSS in Rajasthan, where officials are questioned in public about the implementation of welfare programs.

Challenges in Ensuring Accountability in Governance in India

Challenge	Description
Corruption	Corruption undermines trust in public institutions and hampers accountability mechanisms. Eg – Vyapam scam in Madhya Pradesh
Bureaucratic Red Tape	Excessive procedural formalities delay decision-making and accountability. Eg- delays in environmental clearances
Lack of Transparency	Limited access to government data restricts public scrutiny. Eg- refusal to disclose details of the electoral bonds scheme
Political Interference	Political influence compromises the neutrality and effectiveness of civil servants. Eg- Frequent transfers of IAS officer Ashok Khemka
Social Audit Limitations	The absence of mandated social audits leads to difficulties in verifying official actions and resistance from authorities.
Weak Legal Framework	Delays in implementing the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act
Limited Public Participation	Low public participation in the Gram Sabha, reduction in voting percentage etc.
nefficiencies in Judicial System	Eg-  The long pendency of the 2G spectrum case, which took nearly a decade to reach a verdict
Resource Constraints	Understaffing and lack of funds for anti-corruption agencies like the CVC
Cultural Factors	Social norms that tolerate corruption (“speed money”) and lack of accountability.
Resistance to Change	Lack of enforcement of Supreme Court directives on police reforms and non-compliance of political parties with RTI directives.

Way Forward

1. Strengthening Legal Frameworks – Expedite the implementation of pending laws like the Whistle Blowers Protection Act and strengthen existing laws such as the Prevention of Corruption Act
2. Judicial Reforms – Implementing fast-track courts specifically for corruption and public interest litigation to ensure timely resolution of cases.
3. Enhancing Transparency Mechanisms – Strengthen the Central Information Commission (CIC) and State Information Commissions to reduce the backlog of RTI appeals and ensure compliance by public authorities.
4. Empowering Independent Institutions – Ensure sufficient staffing and funding for the CVC and CAG to carry out thorough investigations and audits without political interference.
5. Promoting Citizen Engagement – Expand the use of the MyGov platform to solicit citizen feedback on policy decisions and improve accountability through direct public involvement 
6. Proactive Information Sharing – Eg- Implementing a public dashboard for major infrastructure projects, similar to the Pragati platform used by the Prime Minister’s Office to track project progress 
7. Implement compulsory social audits for all government schemes by engaging community members in evaluating the implementation and impact of government programs.
8. Revising citizen charters to include penalty clauses for service delays and non-compliance, and ensuring widespread awareness among citizens
9. Limit discretionary powers in governance by defining clear rules and criteria for decision-making to minimize subjectivity. Eg- implementing automated systems for approvals and licenses 
10. Create and enforce a code of conduct for civil servants involving training, regular evaluations, and clear disciplinary actions for violations
11. Regular Monitoring and Evaluation – Establishing a Performance Management and Evaluation System (PMES) across ministries to regularly review and publicly report on project outcomes

Citizen Charter

A Citizen’s Charter is a document that outlines the commitment of an organization to uphold certain standards, ensure quality, and deliver services within a specified timeframe.

It promotes transparency and accountability in administration by including mechanisms for addressing grievances.

Components of a Citizen Charter:

1. Vision and Mission Statement: Defines the organization’s core objectives and the principles guiding its operations.
2. Domain of the Organization: Specifies the range of topics and service areas covered by the organization, clarifying what users can expect in terms of service.
3. Standards, Quality, and Timeframes: Establishes the expected quality and timelines for service delivery, ensuring reliability and efficiency.
4. Grievance Redressal Mechanism: Details the process for addressing complaints, including how to access this service and what to expect during the redressal.
5. Citizen Responsibilities: Describes the duties and obligations of citizens in utilizing the services provided, promoting responsible engagement.
6. Additional Commitments: Includes guarantees such as compensation or other remedial actions in case of service failure, reinforcing the organization’s dedication to effective service delivery.

Significance of Citizen Charter:

1. Transparency and Accountability: Enhances clarity and accountability in public services by detailing what citizens can expect.
2. Citizen Participation: Boosts public involvement by informing citizens about organizational goals and procedures.
3. Improved Service Efficiency: Leads to more efficient and effective public service delivery.
4. Corruption Reduction: Helps reduce corruption by setting clear service standards.
5. Cost Reduction: Decreases costs and delays in public services, promoting efficient governance.
6. Equitable Services: Sets service standards that promote fair access and treatment for all citizens.

Issues:

1. Lack of Legal Enforcement: Citizen Charters aren’t legally binding, which limits accountability.
2. Inadequate Design: Many charters are poorly designed and lack essential information, weakening their impact.
3. Low Awareness: There is significant unawareness among both citizens and implementing agencies.
4. Limited Consultation: Charters often don’t involve consultations with end-users or NGOs, leading to gaps in service alignment.
5. Rare Updates: Many charters are outdated, having not been revised since the 1990s.
6. Overlooking Vulnerable Groups: Needs of groups like senior citizens and the disabled are often ignored.
7. Insufficient Training: Implementing staff frequently lack the training and ownership needed to enforce the charters effectively.
8. Complex Procedures: The process for complaints and grievances is often complicated and inaccessible.
9. No Independent Audits: The absence of audits undermines transparency and effectiveness.
10. Language Barriers: Charters are typically available only in English or Hindi, limiting accessibility for non-speakers. 

Way Forward:

Recommendations by the 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission (2nd ARC)

1. Decentralization of Charter Formulation: Customize Citizen Charters for different government departments to reflect their specific operational realities.
2. Extensive Consultation Process: Develop Citizen Charters through consultations within the organization and with inputs from civil society and experts.
3. Robust Redressal Mechanisms: Include compulsory redressal mechanisms in Charters to ensure compliance and accountability.
4. Periodic Evaluation by External Agencies: Regularly evaluate the effectiveness of Citizen Charters through external agencies and use the findings for improvement.
5. End-User Feedback for Benchmarking: Use feedback from service users to measure the performance of agencies and guide improvements.
6. Realistic Promise Setting: Focus on achievable promises to enhance trust and ensure service delivery within the capabilities of agencies.
7. Accountability for Results: Hold officials and agencies accountable for delivering on the commitments made in the Citizen Charters.
8. Adoption of the Sevottam Model: The Sevottam model was suggested by the 2nd ARC in its 12th report on “Citizen Centric Administration”.  This model combines the principles of ‘service’ and ‘uttam’ (excellence) and outlines a systematic approach:
   1. Defining services and identifying clients.
   2. Setting standards and norms for each service.
   3. Developing capabilities to meet these standards.
   4. Performing services to achieve the standards.
   5. Monitoring and evaluating performance continuously.
   6. Implementing continuous improvements based on evaluations.

These steps provide a comprehensive pathway to revitalize the Citizen Charter framework, ensuring it effectively meets the expectations of citizens and leads to a more accountable and responsive public service system.

Previous Year Questions

[2023] Discuss the contribution of civil society groups for women’s effective and meaningful participation and representation in state legislatures in India. 

[2022] Do you agree with the view that increasing dependence on donor agencies for development reduces the importance of community participation in the development process? Justify your answer. 

[2021] Can Civil Society and Non-Governmental Organisations present an alternative model of public service delivery to benefit the common citizen? Discuss the challenges of this alternative model.

[2016] In the Indian governance system, the role of non-state actors has been only marginal. Critically examine this statement.[2015] Examine critically the recent changes in the rules governing foreign funding of NGOs under the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA), 1976.

Answer Writing Framework

1. INTRODUCTION
   • Definition + connecting statement
   • Context or data – Over 3 Million NGOs
   • Can also start with Quote
2. MAIN BODY
   • Diagrammatic representation to highlight its features
   • Follow TEMPORAL and STAKEHOLDER approach
     • TEMPORAL
       • Policymaking – Expertise, Data, Technology
       • Implementation – Networking, Bottoms up Approach
       • Feedback – Government accountability, social audits
       • Research
     • STAKEHOLDER
       • Government and Administration – Accountability, collaboration, Efficiency, Legitimacy
       • Citizens – Awareness, Access, Capacity Building, Participation
3. For Challenges – Structural, Institutional, Financial, Regulatory, social, security
4. Try to cover dimensions as per the demand of the question and substantiate using data and examples
5. Try to follow the BALANCED approach by providing counter-arguments or issues
6. The brief way forward using global best practices, legal reforms, and effective regulation

CONCLUSION

1. Link with democracy or highlight significance in ‘NEW GOVERNANCE’ or in GOOD GOVERNANCE

The UN Department of Public Information (DPI) defines the NGO as “a not-for-profit, voluntary citizen’s group that is organized on a local, national or international level to address issues in support of the public good.”

NGOs are legally constituted organizations, operate independently from the government and are generally considered to be/ (non-state, non-profit oriented groups who pursue purposes of public interest.” J. Mathew and J. Verghese, 2011

“NGOs contribute to building resilient societies by empowering individuals and communities, promoting civic engagement, and fostering social cohesion.” – Muhammad Yunus

Historical evolution of NGOs:

• Pre-independence: Social Welfare and constructive work (inspired by Gandhian philosophy) very much in line with the independence movement. Example- Servants of India Society, founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• 1950-70: Social Welfare, Government funded and managed. Example- Khadi Industries. Most of the development works rested with NGOs as Five Year’s development plans came into existence.
• 1970-90: NGOs started showing why government programs were not helping the poor and marginalized, and proposed a new development model, which involved people’s participation. NGOs now handle various programs like education, healthcare, water, sanitation, and more. Many of these models later influenced government policies. Example- Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), founded in 1972.
• Post LPG to Present: Govt. Organisations and NGO partnerships got a boost. NGOs are now more focused on SHGs, micro-credit, and livelihoods. Participation of NGOs is ensured in policy-making and program implementation. Example – Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS), which played a pivotal role in the RTI movement.

Types of NGOs:

Types of NGOs	Development work
Activist NGOs	Activist NGOs These serve as policy critics and watchdogs that hold the government to account. Example- Narmada Bachao Andolan.
Social Partner NGOs	Assist the government with delivery of its objectives by supplementing capacity in training, development and support. Example- Oxfam.
Research and Development NGO	These work in the areas of research, innovation and programme design. Example- Centre for Science and Environment (CSE).
Service Provider NGOs	These are normally contracted by the government to assist in the delivery of its programs. Example- Habitat for Humanity.
Humanitarian NGOs	These normally provide material or logistical assistance for humanitarian purposes like saving lives, alleviating suffering and maintaining human dignity. Example- International Rescue Committee (IRC)
Entrepreneurial NGOs	The role of these NGOs is to provide a vehicle for social entrepreneurs to operate with legitimacy. Example- Ashoka

 Constitutional and Legal Provisions:

1. Constitutional Provisions:
   1. Article 19(1)(c) on the right to form associations
   2. Article 43 – State should endeavor to promote cooperatives in rural areas
   3.  Schedule 7: Concurrent List in Entry 28 mentions Charities and charitable institutions, charitable and religious endowments, and religious institutions.
2. Legal Provisions:
   1. Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA), 2010: The law makes sure that those who receive foreign donations use them for their intended purpose.
   2. Indian NGOs come under 3 segments:
      • Societies: Societies have to register under The Societies Registration Act,1860.
      • Trusts: Private trusts are registered under the central government’s Indian Trusts Act, 1882, and public ones are registered under the state legislation concerned.
      • Companies: They are set up according to section 8 of the Companies Act, 2013.

Significance:

1. Policymaking: According to the Observer Research Foundation (ORF)report, NGOs were actively involved in over 70% of major policy public consultations in India between 2018-2020, showcasing their significant participation in policymaking.
2. Implementation: ASER data shows NGOs in India boosted primary school enrolment by 30% and improved learning outcomes by 15%, demonstrating their impact on education policy implementation.
3. Feedback: NGOs like the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) in India provide crucial feedback on policy implementation, assessing environmental policies, and advocating for improvements.
4. Government Accountability: Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) in India highlights how NGOs ensure government accountability through advocacy, litigation, and data-driven methods.
5. Administration: NGOs act as a bridge between the government and the people and serve as implementers, catalysts, and partners. Eg- Akshaya Patra Foundation in implementing Mid Day Meal scheme.
6. People participation: Their role ensures that development is inclusive, with everyone having an equal opportunity to participate. Eg- “Cloth for Work” initiative of NGO Goonj.
7. Women empowerment: Organisations like Sewa (over 2.1 million members), Sathin, Eklavya, and Disha, among many others, are recognized for their efforts in raising awareness and taking action on women’s issues as part of their development initiatives.
8. Rights advocacy and legal reforms: NGOs’ advocacy, as shown in Centre for Budget and Governance Accountability (CBGA)’s Indian study, influenced policy reforms, like amending the Forest Rights Act (2006) to strengthen forest-dweller rights, highlighting their legislative influence.
9. Developmental Functions :

Issues:

1. Organizational Issues
   • Capacity Building: NGOs often struggle with maintaining skilled staff due to low salaries and limited professional development opportunities. A survey by PayScale indicates that NGO employees in India often receive salaries lower than their counterparts in the private sector, leading to high turnover rates.
   • Impact Measurement: The lack of robust systems to evaluate the effectiveness of their work hinders NGOs’ ability to showcase their impact. According to a study by Dasra, a philanthropy foundation, only about 15% of Indian NGOs have proper impact measurement tools in place.
   • A survey by Indian Institute of Corporate Affairs (IICA) found that around 67% of small and medium-sized NGOs in India face resource challenges like limited funding, technical expertise, and infrastructure.
   • A report by the Harvard Kennedy School in 2018 highlighted governance as a critical challenge for NGOs globally, noting that weak governance structures could lead to strategic misalignment and operational inefficiencies. Eg- the majority of NGOs in India don’t have Board for governance.
2. Regulatory Issues
   • Regulatory Burdens: stricter laws like amendments to the FCRA and Prevention of Money Laundering Act, make it challenging for NGOs to access foreign funds. According to data from the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), over 19,000 NGOs lost their FCRA licenses between 2011 and 2020.
   • India does not have a single, complete registry for NGOs, resulting in major gaps in available data. Out of 3 million NGOs in the country, only about 175,000 of are registered on Niti Aayog’s Darpan portal.
3. Financial Issues
   • Funding Constraints: Unpredictable funding cycles and stringent donor conditions impact financial sustainability. According to the India NGO sector report by KPMG, more than 50% of NGOs face difficulties in obtaining consistent funding.
   • Over dependence on government funding curtails their ability to hold government and administration accountable.
   • Competition for Resources: There is stiff competition for limited funding, which often leads to duplicated efforts. A 2019 report by NITI Aayog noted that the high density of NGOs in certain regions leads to competition rather than collaboration, reducing overall sector efficiency.
4. Security: 
   • As per the Intelligence Bureau report, foreign-funded NGOs are acting as instruments for the foreign policy goals of Western governments. Their activism has led to reducing GDP growth by 2-3%.
   • CBI has informed that less than 10% of registered NGOs filed their audited accounts (to registrar of societies). Also, NGOs, except those substantially financed by the government, are outside the purview of the RTI Act. 
5. Lack of Transparency and Accountability: This issue affects trust among international donors. The 2018 Transparency International report highlighted concerns about corruption and mismanagement in Indian NGOs, affecting their international credibility.
6. Cultural Clash: Some people feel that NGOs interfere with long-standing traditions and cultures, which can lead to large-scale protests. For instance, the ban on Jallikattu following a court case filed by PETA is an example of this clash.

Reasons for Marginalization of Non-governmental Organisations NGOs in the developmental process

1. Resource Mobilization Theory: NGOs in India often struggle with resource constraints, which limit their operational capabilities and impact. 
2. Framing Theory: In the context of social movement theory, framing involves the construction of a social reality through language and media. Negative framing in media can lead to marginalization by reducing public trust and support.
3. Regulatory Challenges: The regulatory environment in India can be quite stringent for NGOs, particularly concerning foreign funding.  Eg- FCRA Amendment, 2020
4. Political Environment: NGOs that engage in advocacy or work on sensitive issues such as human rights, environmental protection, or land rights often find themselves at odds with government policies. This leads to political backlash, including scrutiny, restrictions, and sometimes outright hostility. Eg- Amnesty International
5. Financial Constraints: Many NGOs rely heavily on external funding, grants and donations which makes them vulnerable to financial instability.
6. Public Perception and Trust Issues:  instances of corruption and mismanagement within certain NGOs taint the overall perception of these organizations. This erodes public trust and leads to decreased support both in terms of funding and volunteer participation. Eg- Srijan NGO in Bihar
7. Competition with Government and Private Sector: NGOs often compete with government programs and private sector initiatives that have more resources at their disposal. This marginalizes smaller NGOs and reduces their impact, particularly in rural and underprivileged areas.
8. Lack of Professionalism: While many NGOs are highly professional, others may lack the organizational structure, skilled manpower, and management practices needed to be effective. This hinder their ability to deliver services and achieve their objectives.
9. Media Coverage: Limited or negative media coverage can also contribute to the marginalization of NGOs. Media plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion, and without sufficient and positive coverage, NGOs may struggle to gain the visibility needed to attract support and influence policy.

Government steps:

1. National policy on the voluntary sector-2007: This policy is a commitment to increase, enable, and empower the voluntary sector so that it can contribute to the social, cultural, and economic advancement of the people of India.
   1. Objectives:
      1. To create an enabling environment for voluntary organizations (VOs) that stimulates their enterprise and effectiveness, and safeguards their autonomy.
      2. To enable VOs to legitimately mobilize necessary financial resources from India and abroad.
      3. To identify systems by which the government may work together with VOs, based on the principle of mutual trust and respect and with shared responsibility.
      4.  To encourage VOs to adopt transparent and accountable systems of governance and management.
2. NITI Aayog has been appointed as the nodal agency for registration and accreditation of NGOs seeking funding from the Government of India. The Aayog has been also tasked with maintaining database systems to manage and disseminate information relating to NGOs.
3. Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA): It is an act of Parliament, enacted in 1976 and amended in 2010.
   1. Objective: The objective is to regulate foreign donations, and to ensure that such contributions do not adversely affect internal security.
   2. Features:
      1. Registration: Registration under the FCRA is essential for receiving foreign donations in India.
      2. Purpose: Registered NGOs can receive foreign contributions for five purposes- social, educational, religious, economy and cultural.
   3. Amendments: 2010 Amendment and 2020 Amendment. 

NGO Funding:

54% of NGOs have less than three months’ worth of reserve funds.

1. Need:
   1. Driving Local Development: Donations to NGOs contribute to local development efforts by supporting initiatives that promote community empowerment, sustainable livelihoods, and awareness-raising on social issues.
   2. Capacity Building: NGOs require funds to train staff, improve infrastructure, and upgrade technology for enhancing their operational efficiency and effectiveness.
   3. Innovation and Scaling: NGOs need investment for piloting projects, scaling up interventions, or innovating through technology to reach more beneficiaries.
   4. Sustainability: Continuous funding is key to maintaining sustainability and maintaining services even during periods of donor fatigue or economic downturn.
   5. Research and Advocacy: Funds are also needed for research to inform policies and advocacy to influence systemic change on issues like human rights, environmental protection, and policy reform.
   6. Filling Resource Gaps: With financial support, NGOs like Teach For India can bridge resource gaps in sectors like education.
   7. Supporting Rehabilitation and Disaster Response: NGOs like the Red Cross benefit from funding to provide critical support and rehabilitation post-disasters.
2. Issues:
   1. Funding Shortages: Many NGOs in India struggle with limited funds due to delays or insufficient grants from the government. They also find it challenging to raise their own share of funds to meet grant requirements.
   2. Lack of Financial Transparency: Some NGOs face issues with financial mismanagement or misuse of funds, which can damage their credibility and hinder future fundraising efforts.
   3. Dependency on External Sources: NGOs often rely on external grants and donations, leading to uncertainty and instability in funding. This dependency can hinder long-term planning and sustainability.
   4. Inequality in Funding Opportunities: There is often a disparity in funding opportunities between urban and rural NGOs, with urban organizations having better access to resources and support. This inequality can hinder the development of rural NGOs and exacerbate social disparities.

NGO and CSR:

Section 135 of the Companies Act compels profitable companies to allocate a minimum of 2% of their pre-tax net profits to development endeavors, encouraging partnerships with Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs). This collaboration strengthens the roles of NGOs in non-state governance, promoting development through citizenry-private partnerships.

1. Benefits:
   1. Increased Funding and Resources which can be used to support and expand their projects and operations. Eg- Smile Foundation receives more than 80% of its funding from CSR support
   2. Enhanced Visibility and Credibility: Collaboration with reputable companies can increase an NGO’s visibility and lend credibility to its efforts, attracting more donations and support from other sources.
   3. Access to Expertise, Technology, and infrastructure that can significantly improve efficiency and effectiveness. Eg- NGOs Goonj has partnered with firms providing logistics and supply chain expertise, helping them streamline the distribution of resources during disaster relief efforts.
   4. CSR partnerships are often designed to be sustainable, aiming to create long-term social value rather than one-off charitable contributions. This approach helps NGOs plan and execute long-term strategies effectively. Eg- a collaboration between Godrej and WWF India 
   5. Networking and Advocacy Support: Through CSR programs, NGOs can tap into a broader network of industry leaders and influencers, which can be invaluable for advocacy and spreading their message.
   6. Employee Engagement: CSR initiatives often encourage employee involvement through volunteering, which can provide NGOs with additional manpower and expertise and raise awareness.
2. Issues:
   1. The new CSR rules provide for strict compliance measures and the requirement that assets acquired through CSR initiatives be transferred to a third-party NGO or the beneficiaries within six months. This has led to concerns among companies that lack their own CSR foundations and rely on partnerships with NGOs to carry out their CSR activities
   2. Regulatory compliances: The focus of CSR funders is primarily on meeting regulatory requirements due to amendments in the CSR law in 2021, which now includes penalties for non-compliance.
   3. Shifting Responsibilities: 90% of CSR entities, predominantly small and unlisted companies, often defer CSR funding decisions to board members rather than creating dedicated committees.
   4. Misalignment of Goals: Sometimes, the objectives of corporations and NGOs do not align, leading to conflicts or ineffective partnerships where the projects do not fully support the NGO’s mission or community needs.
   5. Dependency and Sustainability: Reliance on CSR funding can make NGOs vulnerable to fluctuations in corporate profits or changes in corporate strategy, which may lead to sudden reductions in funding.
   6. Short-term Engagement: Corporations may engage with NGOs on a short-term basis, seeking quick results for public relations benefits rather than committing to long-term impact, which can undermine sustainable development efforts.
   7. Bureaucratic Overhead: Securing and reporting CSR funds can be cumbersome and bureaucratic, requiring NGOs to divert significant resources away from their core activities to comply with corporate requirements

Role of donor organisations:

A donor organization is an entity, either governmental or non-governmental, that offers financial or material assistance for charitable, developmental, or humanitarian causes.

1. Positives:
   1. Modernization Theory: donor agencies help underdeveloped countries progress by providing the necessary capital and knowledge.
   2. Neoliberal Institutionalism: donor agencies play an important role in creating a global structure that encourages cooperation and coordination between states. Donor agencies, under this framework, help establish norms and practices. Eg- The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria
   3. Public Goods Theory: donor agencies contribute to the provision of global public goods, such as environmental sustainability, public health, and peace. Eg- the role of the World Health Organization (WHO), supported by various national and international donor agencies, in managing the COVID-19 pandemic
2. Negatives:
   1. Dominant top-down approach: Development programs driven by donors often impose a top-down approach, where external organizations dictate priorities and goals instead of considering local needs and perspectives.
   2. External interference: Relying heavily on donor funding diminishes the ability to negotiate and involve communities due to the conditions imposed by donors.
   3. Elite capture of NGOs: Some NGOs end up serving as platforms for individual glorification rather than focusing on community welfare.
   4. Fund mismanagement: There are instances of misusing foreign funds obtained through FCRA by certain NGOs.
   5. Erosion of state responsibility: The increasing reliance on donor support for social welfare initiatives undermines the constitutional responsibility of states as outlined in the Directive Principles of State Policy.
   6. Dependency Theory: Dependency theory suggests that international aid, including that provided by donor agencies, can create a cycle of dependency among recipient nations. The aid leads to reliance on foreign funds rather than fostering domestic growth and self-sufficiency.
   7. Humanitarian Imperialism: aid is used as a tool for extending the influence and control over recipient countries. 

FCRA(Amendment) 2020:

1. Facts: This amendment introduced following changes:
   1. Reduction in use of foreign contributions for administrative purposes: NGOs can only use 20% (earlier 50%) of funds for administrative requirements.
   2. Transfer of foreign contribution: The amendment prohibits the transfer of foreign contributions to any other person and also forbids sub-granting by NGOs to smaller NGOs.
   3. Public servants: It adds public servants to the prohibition list for receiving foreign contributions.
   4. FCRA account restrictions: FCRA accounts can only be opened in a designated branch of SBI in New Delhi.
   5. Aadhaar card usage: Aadhaar card details of all functionaries and office bearers are mandatory for the registration of NGOs.
2. Rationale:
   1. Monitor the misuse of funds and strengthen compliance mechanisms.
   2. Enhance transparency and prevent misappropriation and mis-utilization of foreign contributions.
   3. To curb illicit financial activities such as terror financing and money laundering.
   4. Root out NGOs that are working against internal security and national interest.
3. Issues associated with the recent amendments:
   1. Against constitutional rights: This amendment infringes over constitutionally guaranteed rights to free speech [19(1)(a)] and freedom of association [19(1)(c)].
   2. Cap on administrative expenses: A 20% cap on administrative expenses can limit the recruitment of experts and talented human resources and curtail the efficient functioning of NGOs.
   3. Impact collaborative work among NGOs in different sectors: NGOs will no longer be able to transfer foreign funds to small NGOs working at a grassroots level.
   4. Impact on geographical reach of NGOs: The restriction on the transfer of foreign contributions may also need to decline in the geographical reach of NGOs.
   5. Incompatible with international laws: The UNHRC resolution on protecting human rights says that no law should criminalize or delegitimize activities in defense of human rights on account of the origin of funding.
   6. An additional cost of compliance: Around 93% of FCRA NGOs registered outside Delhi, and they now have to open a bank account in the capital.
   7. Over-regulation of NGOs: Over-regulation would result in a decrease in foreign donations, leading to the closing down of NGOs. Eg- Amnesty International India had to halt its operations due to the freezing of its bank accounts.

Examples of NGOs working in different sectors-

1. Health –
   1. Pratham Education Foundation: Improves healthcare access and outcomes for underserved Indian communities.
   2. Smile Foundation: Provides healthcare services to disadvantaged children and families in India.
2. Education –
   1. Akanksha Foundation: Bridges the education gap for underprivileged children in India.
   2. Teach For India: Ensures educational equity and access for all Indian children through teacher recruitment and training.
3. Legal Reforms –
   1. Common Cause India: Advocate for transparency and good governance through legal reforms.
   2. Human Rights Law Network (HRLN): Provide legal aid and advocacy for marginalized communities.
4. Electoral Reforms –
   1. Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR): Focuses on electoral reforms, transparency, and accountability in the Indian political system.
   2. National Election Watch (NEW): A coalition of NGOs working to improve electoral processes and governance in India.
5. Skilling –
   1. National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC): Enhance employability through skill development programs.
   2. Nirmaan Organization: Empower youth with skills for sustainable livelihoods.
6. Women Empowerment –
   1. Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA): Empower women in the informal sector through collective action (SEWA has over 2.1 million members).
   2.  Breakthrough: Promote gender equality and combat violence against women.
7. Rural Development –
   1. PRADAN (Professional Assistance for Development Action): Focuses on sustainable rural development through capacity building.
   2. Gram Vikas: Improve rural livelihoods and access to basic amenities.
8. Environment –
   1. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF): Works to conserve nature, reduce human impact on the environment, and promote sustainable practices globally.
   2. Greenpeace India: Campaign for ecological conservation and sustainable development.
9. Child Rights –
   1. CRY (Child Rights and You): Ensure the rights and well-being of children in India.
   2. Save the Children India: Protect children from exploitation and provide education and healthcare.
10. Tribals –
    1. Vanashakti: advocates for tribal rights, environmental conservation, and sustainable development in India, emphasizing land and forest protection.
    2. Vanavasi Kalyan Ashram: Work for the welfare and development of tribal communities.
11. Transgenders and LGBTQ –
    1. Naz Foundation: Advocate for LGBTQ rights and inclusivity.
    2. Humsafar Trust: Provide support and advocacy for the LGBTQ community.
12. Minorities –
    1. United Christian Forum (UCF): Advocates for Christian minority rights in India.
    2. Maulana Azad Education Foundation: Empowers Indian minorities, especially Muslims, through education.

Way forward:

1. 2nd ARC: The government should take the initiative to enact a law to set up an independent National Accreditation Council- to provide for the system of accreditation of voluntary organizations that seek funding from government agencies.
2. Vijay Kumar Committee Recommendations:  ‘Light regulation’ of NGO
   1. Nodal body: To oversee the various interfaces between NGOs and government and the NITI Aayog be vested with the power.
   2.  Less physical interface: Between NGOs and public officials acting under the IT Act and FCRA, along with reduction in mutual distrust and scope for misuse.
   3.  A separate law for voluntary agencies: This would enable effective and efficient regulation of voluntary agencies, engaging in activities of a charitable or “public good” nature.
3. Greater coordination between the Ministry of Finance and MHA in monitoring and regulating illicit and unaccounted funds.
4. Establishing a governing board enhances NGO governance, and through capacity building and training, NGOs can develop essential skills internally to effectively tackle future challenges.

Conclusion:

NGOs are “integral cogs in the wheel of good governance”. A balanced partnership between genuine NGOs and the government is crucial for India’s progress. This involves curbing lawbreakers while supporting legitimate NGOs and upholding transparency, accountability, sovereignty, and integrity alongside respecting their rights and contributions. Such collaboration can drive proactive and effective development at all levels.

Disaster

Disaster Management: The term “disaster” comes from the French word “Desastre,” a combination of ‘des’ meaning bad, and ‘aster’ meaning star, implying ‘Bad or Evil star.’

According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) Disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity, leading to one or more of the following: human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts.

Small-scale disaster: a type of disaster only affecting local communities which require assistance beyond the affected community.

Large-scale disaster: a type of disaster affecting a society which requires national or international assistance.

Hazard, Vulnerability, Risk, and Capacity

According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR):

Hazard: A process, phenomenon, or human activity that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental degradation.

Vulnerability: The conditions determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors or processes that increase the susceptibility of an individual, a community, assets, or systems to the impacts of hazards.

Disaster Risk: The potential loss of life, injury, or destroyed or damaged assets that could occur to a system, society, or a community in a specific period of time, determined probabilistically as a function of hazard, exposure, vulnerability, and capacity. It is often represented by an equation: Disaster Risk = (Hazard x Exposure x Vulnerability) / Capacity

Capacity: The combination of all the strengths, attributes, and resources available within an organization, community, or society to manage and reduce disaster risks and strengthen resilience.

Disaster Management Cycle

The disaster management cycle consists of a series of phases aimed at mitigating the impact of disasters, preparing for potential emergencies, responding effectively when disasters occur, and ensuring recovery and reconstruction post-disaster.

Pre-Disaster Phase:

1. Prevention: Prevention involves measures to prevent natural and man-made disasters from occurring. This includes:
   • Implementing land-use planning and building codes to avoid areas prone to hazards.
   • Promoting public education and awareness campaigns to minimize human actions that could lead to disasters.
   • Developing and enforcing policies that reduce environmental degradation and promote sustainable practices.
2. Mitigation: Mitigation efforts focus on reducing the severity and impact of disasters when they occur. These activities include:
   • Structural measures like constructing dams, levees, and retrofitting buildings to withstand earthquakes.
   • Non-structural measures such as zoning laws, land use policies, and economic incentives to encourage disaster-resistant development.
   • Public education campaigns to inform communities about risks and how to mitigate them.
3. Preparedness: Preparedness is about planning and preparing resources and actions to ensure an effective response when a disaster occurs. Key activities include:
   • Developing emergency response plans and conducting regular drills.
   • Setting up early warning systems to alert communities of impending disasters.
   • Training first responders and communities in disaster response techniques.
   • Stockpiling essential supplies such as food, water, and medical supplies.

During Disaster Phase:

1. Response: The response phase occurs immediately after a disaster strikes and aims to provide emergency assistance, save lives, and prevent further damage. Key activities include:
   • Activating emergency response plans and control rooms.
   • Conducting search and rescue operations.
   • Providing medical care, food, water, and shelter to affected populations.
   • Restoring communication and transportation networks to facilitate relief operations. 

Post-Disaster Phase:

1. Recovery: Recovery activities focus on restoring normalcy in the aftermath of a disaster. This phase involves:
   • Assessing damage and conducting needs assessments.
   • Providing temporary housing and restoring public services.
   • Offering financial assistance and psychosocial support to affected individuals.
   • Implementing programs to rebuild and restore affected communities.
2. Reconstruction: Reconstruction involves long-term efforts to rebuild and improve infrastructure, housing, and services to pre-disaster levels or better. Key activities include:
   • Reconstructing damaged buildings, roads, and other infrastructure with improved standards.
   • Restoring and enhancing the economic, social, and environmental health of the affected area.
   • Ensuring that reconstruction efforts incorporate lessons learned to reduce future vulnerabilities

Phase	Category	Activities
Pre-Disaster	Prevention	Land-use planning, building codes, public education, sustainable policies
	Mitigation	Structural measures (dams, levees), non-structural measures (zoning laws), public education
	Preparedness	Emergency response plans, drills, early warning systems, training, stockpiling supplies
During Disaster	Response	Activating plans, search and rescue, medical care, providing essentials, restoring communication
Post-Disaster	Recovery	Damage assessment, temporary housing, financial and psychosocial support, rebuilding programs
	Reconstruction	Rebuilding infrastructure, restoring health and economy, incorporating lessons learned

Importance of the Disaster Management Cycle

The disaster management cycle is essential for several reasons:

1. Risk Reduction: By focusing on prevention and mitigation, the cycle helps reduce the overall risk and potential impact of disasters.
2. Preparedness: It ensures that communities and authorities are well-prepared to respond quickly and effectively, minimizing loss of life and property.
3. Efficient Response: Coordinated response efforts ensure timely assistance to those affected, reducing suffering and preventing secondary impacts.
4. Sustainable Recovery: Structured recovery and reconstruction efforts aim to build back better, promoting resilience and sustainability in affected communities.

Effective disaster management involves the integration of these phases into a continuous cycle, ensuring that lessons learned from past disasters inform future prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery efforts. This holistic approach is crucial for minimizing the adverse effects of disasters and enhancing the resilience of communities.

Types of Disasters

1. Natural Disasters
   1. Geological
      • Earthquakes
      • Tsunamis
      • Volcanic Eruptions
   2. Hydrological
      • Floods
      • Urban Floods
      • Landslides
      • Wave Actions
      • Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)
      • Droughts
   3. Meteorological
      • Cyclones
      • Tornadoes
      • Heatwaves
      • Cold Waves, Derecho
2. Anthropogenic Disasters
   • Biological and public health emergencies (BPHE)
   • Chemical spills
   • Nuclear and radiological emergencies (NRE)

Urbanisation is important in UPSC CSE Mains due to its impact on economic growth, social dynamics, and governance challenges. It underscores the need for sustainable urban planning, infrastructure development, and equitable resource distribution to manage its complex implications effectively.

Questions in UPSC CSE (Mains) from this theme

• Does urbanisation lead to more segregation and/or marginalisation of the poor in Indian metropolises? (2023)
• How is the growth of Tier 2 cities related to the rise of a new middle class with an emphasis on the culture of consumption? (2022)
• Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart villages. Discuss this statement in the backdrop of rural urban integration. (2015)
• Discuss the various social problems which originated out of the speedy process of urbanisation in India. (2013)
• How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid economic development of India? (2019)
• With a brief background of quality of urban life in India, introduce the objectives and strategy of the ‘Smart City Programme’. (2016)

Sub-themes

In line with the trends of the exam, we have prepared this study material with the following subthemes:

• Urban poverty
• Urbanisation and  middle class
• Smart Cities
• Urban- Rural linkages
• Rapid urbanisation in india
• Urban heat islands

Definition Of Urbanisation

Urbanisation is the process of transformation that occurs as a society evolves from predominantly rural to predominantly urban areas. Urbanisation encompasses social, economic, and cultural transformations. It is driven by the migration of individuals from rural to urban areas in pursuit of employment opportunities, improved living standards, access to better education and healthcare facilities.

Growth Trends

Period	Cities with Population >1 Million	Share of Urban Population
2001	35	37%
2011	53	42.6%

Future Projections

By 2031, nearly 41% of people will reside in urban India, with significant prosperity in metros and boom towns. States like Uttar Pradesh, Telangana, and West Bengal are witnessing faster middle-class growth, driven by multiple urban centres.

Challenges faced by Urban Middle Class

Challenge	Solution
Urban Congestion	Develop infrastructure to accommodate growth. Example: Metro rail projects in major cities
Rising Living Costs	Implement affordable housing policies. Example: Affordable Rental Housing Complexes (ARHCs)
Job Market Saturation	Promote skill development and diversified job opportunities. Example: Skill India Mission
Healthcare and Education	Enhance public healthcare and educational facilities. Example: Ayushman Bharat Yojana, Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan
Environmental Impact	Invest in sustainable urban development practices. Example: AMRUT Mission

Smart Cities Mission

One hundred cities were selected for five years under the mission, aimed at driving economic growth and improving the quality of life of people by enabling local development and harnessing technology.

SCM Strategy	Details
Pan-City Initiative	At least one smart solution applied city-wide.
Area-Based Development	Area-Based Development Retrofitting (city improvement), Redevelopment (city renewal), Greenfield projects (city extension).
Core Infrastructure Elements	Adequate water supply, Assured electricity supply, Sanitation, Efficient urban mobility and public transport, Affordable housing, Robust IT connectivity and digitalisation, Good governance, Sustainable environment, Safety and security, Health and education.

Funding and Implementation

The mission, initially planned for five years (FY 2015-16 to FY 2019-20), was extended until June 2024. It operates as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) with Rs 48,000 crores of financial support from the Central Government over five years. States and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) contribute matching funds, bringing the total to nearly Rs 1 lakh crore for Smart Cities development. 

A Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) led by a bureaucrat or MNC representative, and other major stakeholders was created, bypassing traditional city governance models.

Current Status and Challenges	Details
Projects sanctioned	8,033
Total outlay reduced	₹1,67,875 crore
Projects completed	5533
Ongoing projects	1921

Convergence with Other Government Schemes

Comprehensive development is achieved by integrating the SCM with other sectoral schemes like AMRUT, Swachh Bharat Mission, Digital India, Skill Development, and Housing for All.

Challenges	Solutions
Funding Shortfalls: Securing adequate funding is a significant challenge due to the ambitious scope of the Smart Cities Mission. Relying solely on government funds is insufficient.	Increase private sector participation and develop innovative financing models.  Example: Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) in infrastructure projects.
Exclusion of Areas: The mission often focuses on specific areas within a city, leading to the exclusion of other regions that also need development.	Ensure inclusive development across entire cities. Example: Integrated development planning with AMRUT Mission.
Governance Issues: Effective governance is crucial but can be hindered by bureaucratic inefficiencies, lack of coordination, and insufficient capacity of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).	Strengthen governance frameworks and SPV structures.  Example: Training and capacity building programs for ULBs.
Displacement of Communities: Urban development projects can lead to the displacement of poorer communities, with residents being forced out without adequate compensation or relocation plans.	Implement policies to protect vulnerable populations.  Example: Rajiv Awas Yojana.
Infrastructure Disruptions: Large-scale infrastructure projects can disrupt urban environments, causing issues like urban flooding, traffic congestion, and environmental degradation.	Use sustainable urban planning to avoid infrastructure issues like flooding.  Example: Nature-based solutions and green infrastructure.

Urban-Rural Linkages

Urban-Rural Linkages touch on a broad variety of thematic areas ranging from urban and territorial planning, strengthening small and intermediate towns, enabling spatial flows of people, products, services and information to fostering food security systems. 

They also involve addressing mobility and migration, reducing the environmental impact in urban-rural convergences, developing legislation and governance structures, and promoting inclusive financial investments.

Importance of Urban-Rural Linkages
Mutual Dependence: Urban and rural areas rely on each other for economic and social stability. Balanced development ensures mutual growth.
Reducing Rural Poverty: Strengthening linkages helps reduce rural poverty by enhancing access to markets, services, and opportunities.
Integrated Planning: Essential for achieving sustainable development goals by promoting cohesive planning and resource management.
Economic Growth: Urban areas provide markets for rural products, while rural areas supply food and raw materials.
Cultural Exchange: Facilitates the exchange of social and cultural practices, enriching both communities.
Infrastructure and Services: Integrated planning improves the delivery of transportation, healthcare, and education.
Environmental Sustainability: Balanced development helps manage natural resources more sustainably, reducing environmental degradation.
Managing Migration: Better linkages can manage migration flows, reducing pressure on urban areas and providing rural opportunities.
Food Security: Strengthening linkages improves agricultural supply chains and reduces post-harvest losses.
Effective Governance: Integrated governance ensures coherent development strategies for both urban and rural areas.

Challenges and Solutions for Urban-Rural Linkages

Challenges	Solutions
Development Gaps: Significant development gaps exist between urban and rural areas, leading to unequal access to resources and opportunities.	Implement integrated urban and territorial planning. Example: Integrated Rural Urban Linkages (IRUL) framework by UN-Habitat.
Infrastructure Deficit: Rural areas often suffer from a lack of essential infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and communication networks, hindering connectivity with urban areas.	Invest in infrastructure to support rural-urban connectivity. Example: Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY).
Economic Disparities: Economic disparities between urban and rural areas lead to uneven development and limited economic opportunities for rural populations.	Promote balanced economic development and inclusive investments. Example: Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM).
Governance Issues:  Fragmented governance and lack of coordination between different administrative levels and sectors hinder effective implementation of development policies.	Strengthen multi-sectoral, multi-level governance frameworks. Example: Convergence initiatives in Andhra Pradesh.
Environmental Impact:  Urban expansion and rural development can lead to environmental degradation, affecting biodiversity and natural resources.	Implement environmentally sensitive policies. Example: National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG).

Rapid Urbanisation in India

One of the most complex challenges India faces today is the pace and pattern of urbanisation. By 2036, its towns and cities will be home to 600 million people, or 40% of the population, up from 31% in 2011. Urban areas are expected to contribute almost 70% to GDP. Managing this urban transformation effectively will be crucial for India’s ambition of becoming a developed country by 2047.

Key Statistics

Period	Urban Population (%)	Urban Population (millions)
2011	31%	~377
2036	40%	~600
2050	50%	~820

Investment Needs

India will need to invest $840 billion in infrastructure by 2036, averaging $55 billion or 1.2% of GDP annually. However, between 2011 and 2018, India’s total capital expenditure on urban infrastructure averaged only 0.6% of GDP.

Funding Sources	Percentage
Central and State Governments	72%
Commercial Financing	5%
Private Financing	High potential but underutilised

Key Strategies for Urban Transformation

Strategy	Example
Set up Smart New Cities	Develop new urban areas with modern infrastructure and facilities. Implement public-private partnership models. Example: Dholera Smart City Project.
Develop Transport Corridors	Leverage transport corridors for new city locations. Establish corridor development agencies to tie up with city planning. Example: Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC).
Revitalise Manufacturing Sector	Incentivise the location of manufacturing units in new cities. Use specially empowered governance structures to streamline approvals. Example: Make in India initiative.
Build Capacity of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)	Execute bankable projects to attract private investment. Develop municipal bond markets and innovative financing structures. Example: Capacity building programs under AMRUT Mission.
Invest in Public Services	Improve access to healthcare and education. Enhance public transportation systems. Example: Ayushman Bharat Yojana, Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan.
Promote Water Security	Develop infrastructure for efficient water use and recycling. Example: Jal Jeevan Mission.

Examples of Urban Transformation

City/Town	Initiative
Chennai	Holistic approach to transportation, establishing a nodal body.
Surat	Large-scale wastewater recycling.
Dharampuri	Integrated approach to water supply, recycling wastewater.

Challenges and Solutions for Rapid Urbanisation

Challenge	Solution with Example
Infrastructure Deficit	Increase investment in urban infrastructure development. Example: AMRUT Mission.
Environmental Sustainability	Implement sustainable urban planning and green technologies. Example: National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).
Economic Disparities	Promote inclusive economic growth and employment opportunities. Example: Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM).
Governance and Planning	Strengthen urban governance frameworks and planning processes. Example: Smart Cities Mission.
Housing Shortages	Develop affordable housing policies and programs. Example: Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban).

Urban Heat Islands

Urban heat islands (UHIs) are local and temporary phenomena where certain pockets within a city experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas due to trapped heat.

Causes of Urban Heat Islands

Cause	Details
Construction Activities	Increased use of asphalt and concrete trapping heat.
Dark Surfaces	Buildings with dark surfaces absorb more heat.
Air Conditioning	Increased energy use and local heating from air conditioners.
Urban Architecture	Tall buildings and narrow streets reduce air circulation.
Transportation Systems	Use of fossil fuels adds warmth.
Lack of Green Areas	Reduces cooling effects from evapotranspiration and shade.

Mitigation Strategies for Urban Heat Islands

Strategy	Example
Increase Area Under Green Cover	Plant trees and increase green spaces. Example: Green Delhi Campaign.
Passive Cooling Technologies	Use naturally ventilated building designs. Example: Traditional architecture in Jodhpur.
Appropriate Construction Materials	Use materials with higher reflectivity. Example: Cool roofs in Ahmedabad.
Roof and Terrace Treatments	Paint roofs and terraces with white or light colours. Example: White roofs initiative in Jaipur.
Promote Terrace Plantation	Encourage rooftop gardens and kitchen gardens. Example: Rooftop gardens in Bangalore.

Government Efforts towards Sustainable Urbanisation

Initiative	Description	Example
AMRUT	A step towards harnessing the agglomeration economies of urban centres.	AMRUT initiatives in Varanasi and Bhopal
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana	Programme for affordable housing with credit-linked subsidy.	Affordable housing projects in Mumbai
Smart Cities Mission	Urban development programme to develop 100 cities across the country, making them citizen-friendly and sustainable.	Smart city projects in Pune and Surat
National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY)	Scheme for the holistic development of heritage cities.	HRIDAY projects in Varanasi and Jaipur
Swachh Bharat Mission	Initiative to promote cleanliness and sanitation across urban and rural areas.
Deen Dayal Antodaya Yojana – National Urban Livelihood Mission (DAY – NULM)	Aims at creating opportunities for skill development leading to market-based employment and helping the poor set up self-employment ventures.	Skill development programmes
Urban Transport	Interventions like Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) and financing of metro rail projects.	BRTS in cities like Ahmedabad
Pooled Finance Development Fund Scheme	Facilitates development of bankable urban infrastructure projects and helps Urban Local Bodies access capital and financial markets.	Municipal bonds for urban infrastructure
North Eastern Region Urban Development Programme (NERUDP)	Covers priority urban services like water supply, sewerage and sanitation, and solid waste management in the capital cities of five North Eastern states.	Urban development in Agartala and Aizawl

Measures Needed for Urban Development

Measure	Description	Example
Increase Connectivity and Infrastructure	Initiatives like AMRUT, Smart Cities, Digital India, BharatMala, PMGSY to spread the manufacturing sector evenly.	Improved connectivity through BharatMala in remote areas
Planning of Peri-Urban Areas	Proper planning and increased connectivity to spread out the population evenly.	RURBAN scheme to develop rural-urban clusters
Improve Access to Telecommunication and Post-Secondary Education	Improve access in secondary cities to spread the service sector.	Expansion of telecommunication networks in tier-2 cities
Incentivise Setting Up Manufacturing Industries	Encourage setting up industries in underdeveloped areas.	National Industrial Manufacturing Zones
Strengthen Allied Activities	Boost food processing through Food Parks to reduce migration.	Establishment of Food Parks in states like Punjab
Boost MSMEs in Smaller Cities	Encourage growth of MSMEs responsible for creating jobs.	Support for MSMEs in cities like Coimbatore and Sura

Urbanisation is a dynamic process that brings both opportunities and challenges. Effective urban planning, inclusive policies, and sustainable development strategies are essential to harness the positive impacts of urbanisation and address its associated problems. By promoting ‘good’ urbanisation, India can achieve higher living standards, economic growth, and social cohesion, ultimately contributing to the nation’s overall development.

Skill development is a critical topic in UPSC CSE Mains due to its role in enhancing economic productivity, fostering inclusive growth, and addressing social inequalities. Effective policies in these areas are essential for equipping the workforce with relevant skills, promoting entrepreneurship, and empowering marginalised communities, thereby contributing to India’s overall development agenda.

Questions in UPSC CSE (Mains) from this theme

• “Demographic Dividend in India will remain only theoretical unless our manpower becomes more educated, aware, skilled, and creative.” What measures have been taken by the government to enhance the capacity of our population to be more productive and employable? (2016)
• “Earn while you learn’ scheme needs to be strengthened to make vocational education and skill training meaningful.” Comment. (2021)

Sub-themes

In line with the trends of the exam, we have prepared this study material with the following subthemes:

• AI and skill development
• Vocational Training
• Industry-Specific Training
• Entrepreneurship
• Technology and Skill Development
• Skill Development & Marginalised Sections

What is Skill Development and its Importance?

Skill Development refers to the process of acquiring new or enhancing existing skills, knowledge, and attitudes to improve the performance and productivity of an individual or a workforce. It involves various training programs, courses, and on-the-job learning that aim to develop technical, vocational, and soft skills in individuals.

Importance of Skill Development for India:

• Demographic Dividend: India is one of the youngest nations in the world, with over 62% of its population in the working-age group (15-59 years) and more than 54% of its total population below 25 years of age.
• Economic Growth: Equipping the workforce with employable skills and knowledge is crucial for contributing substantially to the economic growth of the country.
• Global Knowledge Economy: As India progresses towards becoming a global knowledge economy, it must meet the rising aspirations of its youth through relevant skill development.

Status of Skill Development in India

Key Highlights of the India Skills Report 2024

Employability Trends

• Overall Employability: The overall young employability in India has improved to 51.25%. States like Haryana, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, and Telangana demonstrate a high concentration of highly employable youth.
• Top State: Haryana has the highest employable youth concentration with 76.47% of test takers in this region scoring 60% and above on the WNET.

AI Leadership and Talent Concentration

• AI Skill Penetration: India holds a prominent global position in AI skill penetration and talent concentration, showcasing a strong base of AI professionals.
• AI Professionals: As of August 2023, there were 4.16 lakh AI professionals, poised to meet the increasing demand expected to reach 1 million by 2026.
• Demand-Supply Gap: India has a 60%-73% demand-supply gap in key roles such as ML engineer, data scientist, DevOps engineer, and data architect.

Industry-Skill Development Linkage

Vocational Training

Key Initiatives:

Initiative	Description	Impact/Example
Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY)	Flagship scheme of the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE), implemented by NSDC. Aims to enable Indian youth to take up industry-relevant skill training that will help them secure a better livelihood.	Trained over 10 million youth since inception.
National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC)	Provides funding and support for skill development initiatives across various sectors, collaborating with the private sector to set up training centers.	Supported the establishment of more than 200 training centers.
Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Kendras (PMKK)	Establishes Model Training Centres (MTCs) in every district, focusing on quality, sustainability, and stakeholder engagement.	Over 700 PMKKs are operating nationwide.

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges	Solutions
Mismatch between skills taught and industry requirements: According to a report by the National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC), 48% of employers find that vocational training graduates lack the necessary skills for their jobs.	Align training curricula with industry needs through regular consultations with industry experts. For example, the Automotive Skill Development Council (ASDC) collaborates with automotive companies to ensure training programs meet industry standards.
High dropout rates due to financial constraints: A survey by the Institute of Applied Manpower Research found that financial difficulties contribute to high dropout rates among vocational training students.	Provide financial assistance through scholarships, subsidized courses, and stipends. The National Skill Development Fund offers scholarships and financial support to deserving students.
Lack of awareness about vocational training programs: According to a FICCI-EY report, 40% of students are unaware of the available vocational training opportunities.	Launch awareness campaigns and informational programs in schools and communities. The Skill India campaign conducts regular outreach programs to promote vocational training across the country.
Inadequate infrastructure and outdated equipment: A report by the Indian Labour Organization (ILO) highlighted that many training centers lack modern facilities and equipment.	Upgrade infrastructure and invest in modern equipment to ensure high-quality training. Initiatives like the Skill Strengthening for Industrial Value Enhancement (STRIVE) program aim to improve the quality and market relevance of vocational training provided by industrial training institutes (ITIs).
Shortage of qualified trainers: The NSDC reports a shortage of 1.2 million trainers in India.	Develop certification programs and train-the-trainer initiatives to increase the number of qualified trainers. NSDC’s Training of Trainers (ToT) program has certified over 10,000 trainers across various sectors.
Difficulty in tracking the progress and impact of training programs: Lack of effective monitoring and evaluation mechanisms hinders the assessment of training outcomes.	Implement robust monitoring and evaluation frameworks to track the progress and impact of training programs. The Skills Acquisition and Knowledge Awareness for Livelihood Promotion (SANKALP) program focuses on improving the monitoring and evaluation of skill development initiatives.
Gender disparity in vocational training enrollment: Women constitute only 28% of those enrolled in vocational training programs, according to the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship.	Promote gender-inclusive policies and provide incentives for women’s participation. Initiatives like the Mahila Shakti Kendra scheme aim to increase women’s enrollment in vocational training by providing safe transport and childcare facilities.

Soft Skills

Soft skills refer to personal attributes, personality traits, inherent social cues, and communication abilities needed for success on the job. They characterize how a person interacts in their relationships with others.

Key Initiatives:

Initiative	Description	Impact/Example
Skill India	Emphasizes the importance of soft skills alongside technical skills through workshops on communication, teamwork, and leadership.	Conducted over 5,000 workshops nationwide.
National Institute for Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development (NIESBUD)	Provides training in soft skills essential for entrepreneurship, including courses on business communication and negotiation skills.	Trained over 1.5 million entrepreneurs in soft skills.

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges	Solutions
Underemphasis on soft skills in traditional education	Integrate soft skills training into academic curricula from an early stage. CBSE schools in India have started including soft skills like communication and teamwork in their curriculum, influenced by the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 which emphasizes holistic education.
Lack of qualified trainers for soft skills	Develop certification programs for soft skills trainers and provide training-of-trainer programs. NSDC has partnered with educational institutions to certify over 10,000 soft skills trainers, ensuring quality training delivery across various sectors.
Difficulty in measuring and assessing soft skills	Use a combination of self-assessment tools, peer reviews, and practical exercises to evaluate soft skills.  The Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) have introduced comprehensive assessment methods, including peer reviews and practical exercises, to evaluate students’ critical thinking, communication, and teamwork skills.

Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship is the process of designing, launching, and running a new business, which is often initially a small business. The people who create these businesses are called entrepreneurs.

Key Initiatives:

Initiative	Description
Startup India	Launched to promote startups by providing tax benefits, funding support, and simplifying regulations.
Standup India	Focuses on financing SC/ST and women entrepreneurs through bank loans for setting up businesses.
Atal Innovation Mission (AIM)	Promotes innovation and entrepreneurship among students by setting up Atal Tinkering Labs (ATLs).
MUDRA Yojana	Provides loans to micro and small enterprises without collateral, categorized as Shishu, Kishor, and Tarun.
Make in India	Aims to transform India into a global manufacturing hub by promoting local manufacturing and entrepreneurship.
Digital India	Focused on digital infrastructure and services to support digital entrepreneurship and startups.
National Entrepreneurship Awards (NEA)	Recognizes and rewards outstanding entrepreneurs and organizations that foster entrepreneurship.
Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY)	Offers skill development training to encourage entrepreneurship by enhancing employability.

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges	Solutions
Limited access to funding and resources: Entrepreneurs often struggle to secure the necessary capital to start and grow their businesses.	Create more venture capital funds, offer subsidised loans and grants, and provide co-working spaces. For instance, government-backed venture capital funds and schemes like the Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY) provide financial assistance to startups and small businesses.
Lack of entrepreneurial education and mentorship: Many potential entrepreneurs lack the necessary education and mentorship to successfully launch and run businesses.	Establish entrepreneurship cells in educational institutions and connect entrepreneurs with mentors and industry experts. University-led incubation centers with mentorship programs, such as those at IITs and IIMs, offer guidance and support to budding entrepreneurs.
Regulatory hurdles and bureaucratic processes: Complex regulations and bureaucratic processes can hinder the ease of doing business.	Simplify business registration processes, reduce compliance burdens, and offer single-window clearance systems. The Startup India initiative provides single-window clearance and simplifies regulatory requirements for startups.
Limited market access and networking opportunities: Entrepreneurs may struggle to access markets and build networks necessary for business growth.	Develop platforms for networking and market access, and organize trade fairs and expos. The e-NAM (National Agriculture Market) platform connects farmers and agricultural entrepreneurs with buyers across the country.
Societal norms and resistance to entrepreneurship: Cultural and societal norms can sometimes discourage entrepreneurship, especially among women and marginalized communities.	Conduct awareness and sensitization campaigns to promote entrepreneurship and challenge societal norms. The Stand-Up India initiative supports entrepreneurship among women and SC/ST communities by offering financial assistance and training programs.
Inadequate infrastructure: Lack of adequate infrastructure can be a significant barrier for entrepreneurs, especially in rural areas.	Invest in developing infrastructure such as incubators, industrial parks, and co-working spaces. The Atal Innovation Mission (AIM) has set up Atal Tinkering Labs and incubation centers to foster innovation and entrepreneurship.
High risk of business failure: Many new businesses fail due to various risks and challenges associated with entrepreneurship.	Provide business training, risk management education, and access to support services. Programs like the National Institute for Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development (NIESBUD) offer training in business management and risk assessment.
Gender disparity in entrepreneurial opportunities: Women often face additional barriers in accessing entrepreneurial opportunities and resources.	Promote gender-inclusive policies and provide incentives for women entrepreneurs. Initiatives like Women Entrepreneurship Platform (WEP) by NITI Aayog support women entrepreneurs through mentorship, funding, and market access.
Lack of continuous support and scaling opportunities: Entrepreneurs may find it challenging to scale their businesses without ongoing support and resources	Offer continuous support through accelerator programs and scale-up initiatives. The Scale-Up India program provides ongoing support and resources to help startups grow and scale their operations.
Difficulty in balancing work and personal life: Entrepreneurs often struggle to balance their business responsibilities with personal life, leading to burnout.	Provide training in time management and work-life balance, and offer support services like childcare. Flexible working options and support services offered by various incubators help entrepreneurs maintain a healthy work-life balance.

Technology and Skill Development

Digital Literacy

Digital literacy is the ability to use information and communication technologies to find, evaluate, create, and communicate information, requiring both cognitive and technical skills.

Key Initiatives:

Initiative	Description	Impact/Example
Digital India	Aims to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy through training programs for rural youth.	Reached over 250 million people.
Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA)	Aims to make six crore rural households digitally literate by providing basic digital literacy training for rural adults.	Trained over 30 million individuals.

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges	Solutions
Limited access to digital devices and internet connectivity: Many areas, especially rural regions, lack the necessary infrastructure for digital literacy.	Expand digital infrastructure in rural and remote areas and provide subsidized devices and internet services. Government initiatives like BharatNet aim to provide high-speed internet to rural areas, and schemes such as PMGDISHA offer low-cost tablets and laptops to students.
Resistance to adopting digital tools and technologies: Individuals may resist using new technologies due to lack of familiarity or perceived complexity.	Conduct awareness campaigns highlighting the benefits of digital literacy and offer user-friendly training modules. Community outreach programs and demonstration sessions can showcase the advantages of digital tools.
Digital divide and inequality: Significant gaps in digital literacy and access exist between urban and rural areas, and among different socio-economic groups.	Implement targeted programs to bridge the digital divide. The Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA) aims to make six crore rural households digitally literate by providing basic digital literacy training.
Inadequate training resources and outdated content: Training materials may not be up-to-date with current digital trends and technologies.	Regularly update training materials and curricula to reflect technological advancements. Collaborations with tech companies can help ensure that training content is current and relevant, as seen in initiatives by the National Digital Literacy Mission (NDLM).
Language barriers: Digital literacy programs may not be accessible to non-English speakers, limiting their effectiveness.	Offer training programs in multiple regional languages to ensure broader accessibility. The National Digital Literacy Mission (NDLM) provides materials and conducts training sessions in various regional languages.
Data security and privacy concerns: Increased use of digital tools raises concerns about data security and privacy.	Implement robust data protection measures and provide training on data privacy. Organizations can adopt best practices in cybersecurity and ensure compliance with data protection regulations to safeguard user information.
Motivation and engagement issues: Maintaining motivation and engagement can be challenging in digital literacy programs.	Use interactive and gamified learning methods to enhance engagement. Platforms like E-Skill India incorporate gamification and interactive modules to make digital literacy training more engaging and enjoyable.
Limited support for continuous learning: Digital literacy is an ongoing process, and there may be a lack of support for continuous learning and upskilling	Provide lifelong learning opportunities and continuous support through online platforms and community centers. The SWAYAM platform offers a wide range of courses for continuous digital literacy and skill development.

Lifelong Learning

Lifelong learning is the ongoing, voluntary, and self-motivated pursuit of knowledge for either personal or professional reasons. It enhances social inclusion, active citizenship, and personal development.

Key Initiatives:

Initiative	Description	Impact/Example
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)	Provides opportunities for continuing education at various levels, offering courses for adults to complete their education and acquire new skills.	Enrolled over 4 million students.
SWAYAM	An online platform offering courses from school to post-graduate level, providing access to free online courses on various subjects, including professional development.	Offers over 2,000 courses and has over 10 million users.
Earn While You Learn Scheme	Integrates vocational education and skill training with practical work experience, allowing students to earn while they learn.	Implemented in over 500 institutions.

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges	Solutions
High cost of continuing education: The cost of courses and training programs can be prohibitive for many individuals.	Offer scholarships, subsidized courses, and flexible payment options. Government scholarships for adult learners and initiatives like the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) provide affordable learning opportunities.
Difficulty in balancing work, family, and education: Adults often find it challenging to manage their time between work, family responsibilities, and education.	Provide flexible learning schedules, online courses, and support services such as childcare. Flexible online courses through SWAYAM and programs like Earn While You Learn integrate vocational training with practical work experience.
Limited access to technology and internet: Access to digital learning resources can be limited, especially in rural areas.	Expand digital infrastructure and provide affordable internet access. The Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA) aims to make rural households digitally literate, and Digital India initiatives provide affordable internet services.
Inadequate support for adult learners: Adult learners often require different support mechanisms compared to traditional students.	Develop adult education programs that include mentorship and peer support. The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) offers tailored programs for adult learners with support services.
Outdated curricula that do not align with current job market needs: Many lifelong learning programs may not keep pace with the rapidly changing job market.	Regularly update curricula to reflect current industry trends and technological advancements. Collaborations with industry experts help keep the content relevant, as seen in programs offered by platforms like SWAYAM.
Lack of recognition and certification of prior learning: Skills acquired through work experience or informal learning are often not formally recognized.	Implement Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) programs to certify skills gained through experience. The RPL program under the Skill India initiative provides certifications that recognize and validate prior learning.
Motivation and engagement issues among adult learners: Maintaining motivation can be a challenge for adult learners juggling multiple responsibilities.	Use interactive and gamified learning methods to enhance engagement. E-learning platforms like E-Skill India incorporate gamification to make learning more engaging and enjoyable.

Technological Integration

Technological integration involves incorporating digital technologies into various aspects of skill development programs to enhance learning experiences and ensure that the workforce is equipped with modern skills. Emphasis should be on integrating AI and digital tools to enhance skill development.

Key Initiatives:

Initiative	Description	Impact/Example
National Digital Literacy Mission (NDLM)	Aims to provide digital literacy training using modern technologies, including e-learning platforms and digital tools for training.	Reached over 50 million individuals.
E-Skill India	Offers online skill development courses accessible from anywhere, covering various fields, including IT, healthcare, and finance.	Over 1 million enrollments in various courses.

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges	Solutions
Limited access to modern technologies: Many training centers, especially in rural areas, lack access to the latest technological tools and infrastructure.	Invest in digital infrastructure and provide affordable access to technology. Government initiatives like BharatNet aim to provide high-speed internet to rural areas, and schemes like PMGDISHA offer low-cost tablets and laptops to students.
Resistance to adopting new technologies: Trainers and learners may be resistant to using new technologies due to lack of familiarity or perceived complexity.	Conduct awareness campaigns and training programs to demonstrate the benefits of technological integration. Workshops and demonstration sessions can help showcase the advantages of e-learning tools and digital platforms.
Digital divide and inequality: There is a significant gap in digital literacy and access between urban and rural areas, and among different socio-economic groups.	Implement targeted programs to bridge the digital divide. The Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA) aims to make six crore rural households digitally literate by providing basic digital literacy training.
Lack of skilled trainers in digital technologies: There is a shortage of trainers who are proficient in the latest digital tools and technologies.	Develop certification programs and train-the-trainer initiatives to increase the number of qualified trainers. The Training of Trainers (ToT) program by NSDC has certified over 10,000 trainers in various digital skills.
Data security and privacy concerns: The increased use of digital tools raises concerns about data security and privacy.	Implement robust data protection measures and provide training on data privacy. Organizations can adopt best practices in cybersecurity and ensure compliance with data protection regulations to safeguard learner information.
Integration of AI and emerging technologies: Incorporating advanced technologies like AI, IoT, and blockchain into training programs can be challenging.	Collaborate with tech companies and industry experts to develop specialized training programs. For example, NSDC’s collaboration with IBM and Microsoft has led to the introduction of AI and cloud computing courses.
High costs of implementing technological solutions: The initial investment required for setting up digital infrastructure and procuring modern equipment can be high.	Seek government funding and public-private partnerships to share costs. Initiatives like the Skill Strengthening for Industrial Value Enhancement (STRIVE) program provide financial assistance for upgrading training infrastructure.
Keeping trainers and curricula up-to-date: Rapid technological advancements require continuous updates to training content and methodologies. Engagement and motivation of learners in digital environments: Online and digital training environments can sometimes lead to lower engagement and motivation among learners.	Establish continuous professional development programs for trainers. Regular workshops and refresher courses can help trainers stay updated with the latest trends and technologies. Use interactive and gamified learning tools to enhance engagement. Platforms like E-Skill India offer gamified courses and interactive modules to keep learners motivated and engaged.

Skill Development & Marginalised Sections

Marginalized Communities

Key Initiatives:

Initiative	Description	Impact/Example
Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE)	Focuses on promoting skill development across the country, with a specific focus on marginalized groups.	Enrolled over 8.8 lakh candidates belonging to SC, ST, OBC, and minority communities in 2020-21.
Skill Development Initiatives for SCs & STs	Implemented by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment (MoSJ&E), providing training in traditional skills and promoting entrepreneurship.	Trained over 4.5 lakh SC and ST candidates in 2021-22.
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)	Acknowledges existing skills gained through work experience, allowing individuals to bypass formal training and obtain certifications.	Benefited over 2 million individuals.

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges	Solutions
Limited access to education and skill development: Marginalized communities often have fewer educational institutions and training centers.	Establish more training centers in underserved areas and provide mobile training units. The Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) has set up Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Kendras (PMKKs) to increase accessibility for marginalized groups.
Financial constraints: Members of marginalized communities may lack the financial resources to afford training programs.	Provide scholarships, subsidized courses, and financial aid. For instance, the National Skill Development Fund offers scholarships and financial support to individuals from marginalized communities.
Social stigma and discrimination: Prejudices and discrimination can limit the opportunities for marginalized communities to participate in skill development programs.	Conduct awareness and sensitization campaigns to promote social inclusion and reduce biases. Community workshops and media campaigns under the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) help address social biases and promote inclusivity.
Lack of awareness about available programs: Many individuals from marginalized communities are unaware of the skill development opportunities available to them.	Increase outreach through local NGOs and community leaders to spread awareness about skill development initiatives. Collaboration with local NGOs can help inform marginalized groups about available programs.
Geographical barriers: Remote and rural areas where marginalized communities often reside may lack easy access to training centers.	Establish training centers in remote and rural areas and deploy mobile training units. The Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE) has focused on setting up centers in such areas to ensure better accessibility.
Inadequate infrastructure: Training centers in areas with marginalized communities may lack proper facilities and equipment.	Upgrade infrastructure and invest in modern equipment to ensure quality training. Initiatives like the Skill Strengthening for Industrial Value Enhancement (STRIVE) program aim to improve the quality and market relevance of vocational training provided in such areas.
Cultural barriers: Certain cultural practices and norms may hinder participation in skill development programs.	Develop culturally sensitive training programs and engage with community leaders to encourage participation. Programs tailored to respect and incorporate local cultural practices can enhance participation rates.
Difficulty in securing employment post-training: Discrimination and lack of networks can hinder job placements for trained individuals from marginalized communities.	Foster partnerships with industries and promote inclusive hiring practices. The Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) program acknowledges existing skills and provides certifications, improving employability for marginalized individuals.
Language barriers: Training programs may not always be available in the native languages of marginalized communities.	Offer training programs in multiple local languages to ensure better understanding and participation. The National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) provides materials and conducts training sessions in various regional languages.
Limited access to digital tools and technologies: Marginalized communities may have less access to digital devices and the internet, which are increasingly important for modern skill development.	Provide affordable digital devices and internet access, along with digital literacy training. Government initiatives like Digital India aim to enhance digital infrastructure and accessibility for marginalized groups.

Gender and Inclusivity

Gender and inclusivity focus on ensuring that all individuals, regardless of gender or background, have equal opportunities to participate in skill development programs and access resources.

Key Initiatives:

Focus Area	Description	Impact/Example
Women’s Livelihood Skills	Skill development programs tailored to the specific needs and aspirations of women, including training in areas like tailoring, handicrafts, beauty care, and entrepreneurship.	Empowered over 1 million women through tailored training programs.
Bridging the Digital Divide	Providing access to computers, internet connectivity, and digital skills training in local languages to enhance women’s participation in the modern workforce.	Digital literacy training for over 500,000 women.
Safe Transportation and Supportive Infrastructure	Ensuring safe transportation to and from training centers and providing childcare facilities to encourage greater female participation.	Safe transport services and childcare facilities at training centers.
Gender Sensitization	Training providers and workplaces need to be sensitized to gender issues and create a more inclusive environment.	Conducted over 1,000 gender sensitization workshops.

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges	Solutions
Gender disparity in enrollment: Women often have less access to skill development programs due to social and cultural barriers.	Promote gender-inclusive policies and provide incentives for women’s participation. For example, the Mahila Shakti Kendra scheme aims to increase women’s enrollment in vocational training by providing safe transport and childcare facilities.
Safety and mobility concerns: Women may face safety issues and lack of safe transportation options to attend training centers.	Ensure safe transportation and supportive infrastructure. Some initiatives provide dedicated transport services and set up childcare facilities at training centers to encourage female participation.
Lack of gender-sensitive training environments: Training centers may not be equipped to handle the specific needs of women, leading to a less inclusive environment.	Conduct gender sensitization workshops and create inclusive training environments. For instance, the Skill India program includes gender sensitization as part of the curriculum for trainers and staff.
Limited access to digital skills and technology: Women, especially in rural areas, may have less access to digital devices and the internet.	Provide access to digital devices and internet connectivity, and offer digital skills training in local languages. The Bridging the Digital Divide initiative has provided digital literacy training for over 500,000 women.
Societal norms and stereotypes: Traditional gender roles and societal expectations can restrict women’s participation in skill development programs.	Conduct awareness and sensitization campaigns to challenge societal norms and promote gender equality. Community outreach programs and media campaigns can help shift perceptions and encourage more women to join skill development programs.
Financial constraints: Women may lack the financial resources to pay for training programs or may not have control over household finances	Offer scholarships, subsidized courses, and stipends specifically for women. The National Skill Development Fund and other initiatives provide financial support to women learners.
Limited opportunities for employment post-training: Even after acquiring skills, women may face barriers in finding employment due to gender biases in the job market.	Create partnerships with industries to ensure job placements and promote women-friendly workplaces. Programs like the Women’s Livelihood Skills initiative have empowered over 1 million women through tailored training programs and job placement support.
Balancing training with household responsibilities: Women often have to manage household duties along with their training, which can be challenging.	Provide flexible training schedules and support services such as childcare. Flexible online courses through platforms like SWAYAM allow women to balance their training with other responsibilities.

Community and Rural Development

Community and rural development refer to initiatives aimed at improving the living conditions, economic opportunities, and overall well-being of rural populations and communities.

Key Initiatives:

Focus Area	Description	Impact/Example
Community Needs Assessment	Designing skill development programs based on the specific needs and resources of the local community.	Needs assessments conducted in over 200 rural communities.
Livelihood Clusters	Developing skill development clusters in rural areas to create a supportive ecosystem for entrepreneurship and economic development.	Established 50 livelihood clusters in rural areas.

Challenges and Solutions:

Challenges	Solutions
Limited access to skill development centers: Many rural areas lack training facilities, making it difficult for residents to acquire new skills.	Establish more skill development centers in rural areas and deploy mobile training units. For example, the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) has set up Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Kendras (PMKKs) to increase accessibility.
Lack of awareness about available skill development programs: Many rural residents are unaware of the opportunities for skill development.	Launch awareness campaigns and informational programs in schools and communities. The Skill India campaign regularly conducts outreach programs to promote vocational training.
Financial constraints: High costs of training programs can be a barrier for many in rural areas.	Provide financial assistance through scholarships, subsidized courses, and stipends. The National Skill Development Fund offers scholarships and financial support to deserving students.
Inadequate infrastructure and outdated equipment: Many training centers in rural areas lack modern facilities and equipment.	Upgrade infrastructure and invest in modern equipment to ensure high-quality training. Initiatives like the Skill Strengthening for Industrial Value Enhancement (STRIVE) program aim to improve the quality and market relevance of vocational training.
Shortage of qualified trainers: There is a significant shortage of skilled trainers in rural areas.	Develop certification programs and train-the-trainer initiatives to increase the number of qualified trainers. NSDC’s Training of Trainers (ToT) program has certified over 10,000 trainers across various sectors.
Gender disparity in skill development programs: Women in rural areas often have less access to training opportunities.	Promote gender-inclusive policies and provide incentives for women’s participation. Initiatives like the Mahila Shakti Kendra scheme aim to increase women’s enrollment in vocational training by providing safe transport and childcare facilities.
Difficulty in tracking the progress and impact of training programs: Lack of effective monitoring and evaluation mechanisms in rural areas.	Implement robust monitoring and evaluation frameworks to track the progress and impact of training programs. The Skills Acquisition and Knowledge Awareness for Livelihood Promotion (SANKALP) program focuses on improving the monitoring and evaluation of skill development initiatives.
Limited industry linkages: Rural training centers often have fewer connections with industry, reducing employment opportunities for trainees.	Foster partnerships between training centers and local industries to ensure relevant and up-to-date training programs. An example is the partnership between ITIs and local industries to provide apprenticeships and on-the-job training.

Conclusion

Skill development is vital for India’s economic growth and social empowerment. By focusing on vocational training, digital literacy, soft skills, entrepreneurship, lifelong learning, industry-specific training, education and academia, technological integration, community and rural development, and gender inclusivity, India can create a skilled workforce capable of meeting the demands of the global market and fostering inclusive growth. These initiatives not only enhance employability but also contribute to the overall development of individuals and communities, ensuring a brighter future for the nation.

Present Status

1. Enrolment Ratios: Elementary level enrolment ratios are close to 100%. Gross enrolment ratios (GER) for secondary education have increased, although net enrolment ratio (NER) remains low.
   • GER for Grades 6-8: 90.9%
   • GER for Grades 9-10: 79.3%
   • GER for Grades 11-12: 56.5%
2. Enrolment Trends: From 2007-08 to 2015-16, enrolment in government primary schools declined by 2.31 crores, while enrolment in private primary schools increased by 1.45 crores.
3. Out-of-School Children: As per the 75th round NSSO survey (2017-18), 3.22 crore children in the age group of 6 to 17 years are out of school.
4. Human Development Report (2019): Between 1990 and 2018, mean years of schooling increased by 3.5 years and expected years of schooling increased by 4.7 years in India.
5. Attendance Rates: ASER surveys estimate national attendance in primary and upper primary schools at 71.4% and 73.2%, respectively, with considerable state-wise differences.
6. Enrolment Drop-offs: Enrolment drop-offs are severe for Scheduled Castes (19.6% to 17.3%), Scheduled Tribes (10.6% to 6.8%), differently-abled children (1.1% to 0.25%), and female students within these categories.
7. Learning Outcomes: Over 5 crore elementary school students have not attained foundational literacy and numeracy.
8. Pupil-Teacher Ratio: The national pupil-teacher ratio is 24:1 for elementary schools and 27:1 for secondary schools.
9. Mental Health: Student suicides due to examination and career stress increased from about 6,600 in 2012 to about 9,000 in 2015.

Challenges in School Education

1. Inadequate Public Funding: Government spending on education remains around 3% of GDP, compared to the world average of 4.7% (World Bank).
2. Focus on Infrastructure Over Learning Outcomes: Disproportionate emphasis on infrastructure rather than actual learning outcomes.
3. Governance and Monitoring: Centralized governance leads to conflicts of interest and ineffective management.
4. Teacher Training and Vacancies: Inadequate teacher training, numerous teaching vacancies, and high absenteeism affect education quality.
5. Limited Vocational Education: The school system offers limited options for vocational training.
6. Language Barriers: Underdeveloped Indian languages and lack of standard publications hinder learning, especially in rural areas.
7. Small Schools: Numerous small schools are economically and operationally inefficient, often requiring teachers to cover multiple grades and subjects.
8. Mental Health Support: Inadequate mental health support for students leads to increased stress and related issues.

Steps Taken

1. VidyaDaan 2.0: National program for contributing e-learning content.
2. e-Pathshala: NCERT portal/app hosting educational resources.
3. PRAGYATA Guidelines: Guidelines for digital education addressing limited or no access to technologies.
4. Manodarpan: Psychosocial support initiative for mental health and emotional well-being.
5. PM eVIDYA: Multi-mode access to digital education, including DIKSHA portal, TV channels, radio, and special content for the visually and hearing impaired.
6. Operation Digital Board (ODB): Converts classrooms into digital classrooms.
7. ShaGun Portal: Monitors Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan implementation.
8. Shala Siddhi: Online portal for school self-evaluation.
9. National Digital Education Architecture (NDEAR): Supports teaching, learning, and administrative activities.
10. National Education Technology Forum (NETF): Platform for exchanging ideas on technology use in education.
11. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: Universalisation of primary education.
12. Mid-Day Meal: Enhances enrolment, retention, and nutritional levels among school children.
13. RTE Act, 2009: Enforces free and compulsory education for children aged 6-14 years.
14. NIPUN Bharat Mission: Aims for universal proficiency in foundational literacy and numeracy by the end of Grade 3 by 2026-27.
15. Strengthening Teaching-Learning and Results for States (STARS) Project: Improves monitoring and measurement activities in school education.
16. Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan: Integrates Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), and Teacher Education (TE) to provide quality education and enhance learning outcomes.

Way Forward

1. Increase Funding: Raise government spending on education to at least 6% of GDP by 2022.
2. Improve Governance: Develop robust mechanisms to enforce regulations on teacher qualifications, absenteeism, and learning outcomes, with regular assessments by independent bodies.
3. Focus on Learning Outcomes: Integrate small schools to optimize resources, run remediation processes concurrently with regular classes, and implement consequences for failing to meet minimum learning outcomes.
4. Enhance Vocational Education: Award credits for subjects passed, provide options for vocational courses from secondary level, and pilot innovative vocational education models.
5. Revamp Curriculum: Design pre-primary and primary syllabus on a skill-based continuum, align vocational education syllabus with NSQF, and include practical learning activities.
6. Teacher Training: Improve teacher training and reduce vacancies to enhance teaching quality.
7. Reduce Mental Stress: Include life skills and stress management in the curriculum, provide mental health support, and ensure easy access to counseling, especially for at-risk children.
8. Broaden RTE Coverage: Extend RTE to cover ages 6-18, ensuring foundational knowledge and workforce inclusion.
9. Address Drop-Outs: Implement creative policies to tackle drop-outs due to financial constraints and loss of interest, such as free bicycles to improve mobility.

Higher Education in India

Present Status

1. Enrolment in Higher Education:
   • Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) has increased from 25.8% in 2017-18 to 26.3% in 2018-19. Gender parity is almost achieved with GER for men at 26.3% and women at 26.4%.
   • India lags behind the world average GER of 33%, with comparable economies like Brazil at 46%, Russia at 78%, and China at 30%. South Korea exceeds 93%.
   • The number of universities increased from 903 in 2017-18 to 993 in 2018-19, with a significant share managed by the private sector.
   • Narrowing gender gap with 51.36% male and 48.64% female enrolment.
   • SC and ST student enrolment stands at 14.89% and 5.53%, respectively.
   • Significant regional disparities with college density ranging from 7 in Bihar to 59 in Telangana, and GER varying from 5.5% in Daman & Diu to 56.1% in Chandigarh.
   • Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) in universities and colleges is 29.
2. Quality Concerns:
   • Few Indian institutions feature in the top 200 of global rankings.
   • Limited employability of graduates.
   • Foreign student enrolment increased from 34,774 in 2012-13 to 47,575 in 2016-17, with higher male enrolment.

Issues

1. Iniquitous Access:
   1. Low GER, especially among SC (23%) and ST (18%) populations.
   2. Significant regional disparities and limited access in rural areas.
2. Poor Quality:
   1. Only three Indian institutions in the top 200 global rankings.
   2. Proliferation of substandard private institutions with inadequate infrastructure and outdated curricula.
   3. Outdated assessment systems and poor learning outcomes.
3. Governance and Management:
   1. Overregulation and under-governance.
   2. Non-transparent entry norms and high entry barriers.
   3. Excessive government control and intervention in university autonomy.
   4. Overburdened universities with massification of substandard education.
4. Lack of Funding:
   1. Insufficient investment and government funding, with only 1% of GDP spent on higher education.
   2. Limited financial avenues leading to high capitation fees.
5. Skills and Employability:
   1. Curriculum misaligned with industry needs, lacking employability and innovation skills.
   2. Lack of hands-on training results in unprepared graduates.
6. Commercialisation of Education: Private institutions focusing on profits over quality, leading to degree mills.
7. Poor Research and Development:
   1. Limited R&D, lack of international exposure, and collaborations.
   2. Separation of research from teaching activities.
8. Curriculum Issues: Lack of interdisciplinary approach and restricted use of ICT in education delivery.
9. Teaching Vacancies: High vacancies in teaching positions and inadequate training.
10. Quality Concerns: Rapid expansion without regard for quality, with many institutions rated as middle or poor by NAAC.
11. Misalignment with Industry Needs: High unemployment among graduates due to curriculum not aligned with industry requirements.

Steps Taken

1. Research and Development:
   1. RISE Scheme: Funded by Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA) for infrastructure and research investments.
   2. Prime Minister’s Research Fellows (PMRF): Enhances quality of technical research.
   3. IMPRINT India: Boosts scientific and technological research through IITs and IISc.
   4. SPARC: Facilitates academic and research collaborations with international institutions.
2. Enrollment and Access:
   1. National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Aims to increase GER to 50% by 2035 with a flexible, interdisciplinary curriculum.
   2. SWAYAM Portal: Provides quality education through online courses.
   3. Unnat Bharat Abhiyan: Engages higher educational institutions with rural development.
   4. Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA): Strategic funding to state institutions based on performance.
3. Funding and Regulation:
   1. Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA): Finances infrastructure improvements.
   2. Institutions of Eminence (IoE): Program to develop world-class institutions.
   3. National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF): Ranks institutions based on various performance metrics.
4. Improving Quality:
   1. NAAC and NBA Accreditation: Mandatory assessments for funding eligibility.
   2. GIAN Initiative: Engages international experts with Indian institutions.
   3. TEQIP: Supports quality improvement in technical education.
5. Support for Marginalized Groups:
   1. UDAAN, SAKSHAM, Ishan Uday: Scholarship programs for disadvantaged groups.
6. Digital and Distance Learning:
   1. SWAYAM and NPTEL: Online courses and learning platforms.
   2. YUKTI 2.0: Supports incubated startups and technologies in higher education.

Government Bodies

1. UGC (University Grants Commission): Regulates and provides funds to universities.
2. AICTE (All India Council for Technical Education): Regulates technical education.
3. ICHR (Indian Council of Historical Research): Supports historical research.
4. ICSSR (Indian Council of Social Science Research): Supports social science research.
5. Higher Education Commission of India (HECI): Proposed to replace UGC for improved regulation and transparency.

Way Forward

1. Regulatory and Governance Reforms:
   1. Establish a unified regulatory framework and amend the UGC Act.
   2. Develop a framework for foreign universities and ensure transparent selection processes for leadership positions.
2. Curriculum Design:
   1. Standardize curriculum and continuously update with industry and expert feedback.
   2. Integrate skills and vocational training with higher education.
   3. Mandate internships for professional and technical courses.
3. Accreditation Framework:
   1. Ensure regular accreditation of all higher education institutions.
   2. Expand the number of credible accreditation agencies and focus on outcome-based accreditation.
4. Creating World-Class Universities:
   1. Develop ‘Institutions of Eminence’ with significant funding.
   2. Implement a graded funding mechanism for top public universities.
5. Performance-Linked Funding and Incentives:
   1. Link grants to institutional performance and quality.
   2. Establish a public funding system for research and innovation.
   3. Adopt a prize system for solving specific research problems.
6. Development of Teacher Resources:
   1. Develop stringent norms for faculty recruitment and encourage quality teaching.
   2. Introduce mandatory training and outcome-based evaluation for faculty.
   3. Regularly assess the quality of journals used for faculty evaluations.
7. Distance and Online Education:
   1. Broaden the scope of MOOCs and ODL.
   2. Permit high-ranking universities to offer online education programmes.
   3. Leverage technology to address faculty shortages.
8. Vocational and Profession-Led Education:
   1. Establish norms for vocational education institutions and integrate vocational subjects in universities.
   2. Focus on high-demand skills such as public health and foundational teaching.
9. Additional Measures:
   1. Strengthen public institutions and improve inclusion through scholarships and freeships.
   2. Provide greater autonomy in academic matters and incentivize good performers.
   3. Increase funding from various sources and transform top universities into institutes of excellence.
   4. Promote interdisciplinary education and incentivize research among faculty.
   5. Forge international collaborations to enhance academic quality.

Teacher Education in India

Present Status

1. Regulatory Body: The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) regulates teacher education in India.
   • Teacher-Training Institutes: 23,219 recognized institutes, with around 90% privately run. The intake was 17.58 lakh in 2016.
2. Teacher Eligibility: Teachers in schools must pass the Teacher Eligibility Test (TET), and higher education teachers must pass the National Eligibility Test (NET) or State Level Eligibility Test (SLET).
   • Qualification Rates: Only 13.53% of candidates qualified for the Central Teacher Eligibility Test (CTET) in 2015. The pass percentage for UGC-NET is also low, with only 6% qualifying.
3. In-Service Training: The current framework includes 592 District Institutes of Educational Training (DIETs), 112 Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs), 35 Institutes of Advanced Studies (IASEs), and 17 Block Institutes of Teacher Education (BITEs).
   • Training Statistics: Only 14.9% of teachers received in-service training for elementary education in 2015-16, despite the provision of 20 days of training under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA).
4. Teacher Vacancies: There are 9 lakh teacher vacancies out of 51.03 lakh sanctioned posts, with 4.2 lakh vacancies in SSA schools.
5. Pupil-Teacher Ratio: 33% of schools do not meet the required pupil-teacher ratio. There are also 2.91 lakh surplus teachers due to regional demand-supply imbalances.
6. Teacher Attendance: A national survey showed 25% of teachers absent from school, and only half teaching during unannounced visits.

Issues

1. Regulatory Monitoring: Insufficient regulatory monitoring of teacher education institutions.
2. Teacher Eligibility Tests: Some state-level TETs are not adequately robust.
3. In-Service Training: Inadequate training programs and lack of public funding support.
4. Demand-Supply Imbalance: No robust system to balance regional or state-level demand and supply of teachers.
5. Accountability: Limited systems for teacher accountability.

Steps Taken

1. Regulatory Framework:
   • NCTE: Regulatory body for teacher education.
   • Accreditation: Efforts to improve accreditation and grading processes.
2. In-Service Training:
   • Pt. Madan Mohan Malviya National Mission for Teachers & Teaching: Aims to build a strong professional cadre of teachers.
   • NISHTHA: National mission to improve learning outcomes through integrated teacher training.
   • SSA Provision: 20 days of in-service training for all teachers.
3. Technological Interventions:
   • Madhya Pradesh’s M-Shiksha Mitra: Mobile application to monitor teacher attendance.
4. Performance Monitoring:
   • PINDICS (Performance Indicators): NCERT’s quality monitoring tools to evaluate teachers’ competencies.
   • National Electronic Teacher Registry: Proposed platform to host teachers’ profiles and monitor performance.

Way Forward

1. Strengthening the Regulatory Framework:
   1. Transparent Criteria: Develop and enforce rigorous criteria for recognizing institutions.
   2. Close Dysfunctional Institutes: Ensure the closure of fraudulent or dysfunctional teacher education institutions.
   3. Institutions of Eminence: Establish 5-6 teacher training institutions with an annual intake of 2000 students each.
2. Robust In-Service Teacher Development:
   1. Professional Development: Redesign in-service training with continuous professional development through various modes like coaching, peer-learning, and sabbaticals.
   2. Mission Mode Implementation: Implement the Pt. Madan Mohan Malviya National Mission for Teachers & Teaching in mission mode.
3. Accountability of Teachers:
   1. Electronic Registry: Set up a national electronic teacher registry to host educational profiles and monitor performance.
   2. Performance-Based Salary: Link salary increments to performance assessments.
   3. Tri-Annual Testing: Test teachers tri-annually on the same subjects they teach.
   4. Strengthen TET: Standardize TET across states to match central TET standards.
   5. NET/SLET for Higher Education: Continue and strengthen the use of NET/SLET as minimum eligibility criteria for higher education faculty.
4. Balancing Teacher Demand-Supply:
   1. Forecast Model: Develop state-level teacher-demand forecast models to address regional surpluses and deficiencies.
   2. Transparent Appointments: Ensure transparent and timely appointments to address vacancies.

These structured steps and measures are essential to revamp the ecosystem of teacher education, ensuring quality education through well-trained, accountable, and adequately supported teachers.

NEW EDUCATION POLICY, 2020

1. The National Education Policy (NEP), 2020 is the first education policy of the 21st century and replaces the thirtyfour-year-old National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986. 
2. Built on the foundational pillars of access, equity, quality, affordability, and accountability, this policy is aligned to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and aims to transform India into a vibrant knowledge society and global knowledge superpower by making both school and college education more holistic, flexible, multidisciplinary, suited to 21st century needs and aimed at bringing out the unique capabilities of each student.
3. The launch of the National Education Policy 2020 marked remarkable progress in the area of education and learning. India has completed one year into the National Education Policy. The pandemic has slowed the progress of NEP. 
4. The NEP is essentially about learning through observation, listening, exploring, experimenting, and asking questions. 

Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE)	1.Universal Access to ECCE for children of 3-6 years 2. ECCE will be delivered through Anganwadis and pre-schools that will have teachers and Anganwadi workers trained in the ECCE pedagogy and curriculum.  3. Pre-school sections covering at least one year of early childhood care and education will be added to Kendriya Vidyalayas and other primary schools, particularly in disadvantaged areas.  4. NCERT will develop a National Curricular and Pedagogical Framework for ECCE for children up to the age of 8 5. Implementation to be jointly carried out by Ministries of HRD, Women and Child Development (WCD), Health and Family Welfare (HFW), and Tribal Affairs.
Attainment of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy	1. National Mission on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy by MHRD: Under it, States/UTs will prepare an implementation plan for attaining universal foundational literacy and numeracy in all primary schools for all learners by grade 3 by 2025.  2. National Book Promotion Policy is to be formulated to ensure the availability, accessibility, quality, and readership of books across geographies, languages, levels, and genres.  3. National Repository of high-quality resources on foundational literacy and numeracy will be made available on the Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing (DIKSHA).
Curtailing Dropout Rates and Ensuring Universal Access to Education at All Level	1. Providing effective and sufficient infrastructure so that all students have access to safe and engaging school education.  2. Open and Distance Learning (ODL) Programmes offered by the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) and State Open Schools will be expanded and strengthened with special emphasis on Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Groups (SEDGs).  3. Tracking students as well as their learning levels through counselors or well trained social workers.
Student Assessment	1. School examinations in Grades 3, 5, and 8 which will be conducted by the appropriate authority.  2. Board exams for Grades 10 and 12 will be continued but redesigned.  3. National Assessment Centre, PARAKH (Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development), will be set up as a standard setting body under MHRD.  4. Holistic Progress Card with 360-degree, multidimensional report that reflects the progress as well as the uniqueness of each learner in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.  5. National Testing Agency (NTA) to serve as an autonomous testing organization to conduct entrance examinations for undergraduate and graduate admissions and fellowships in higher education institutions.
Multilingualism and the power of language	1. Medium of instruction up till grade 5, and preferably till Grade 8 and beyond, will be home language/ mother-tongue/ local language. 2. ‘The Languages of India’ is a fun project/ activity to be taken by every student under the ‘Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat’ initiative.  3. Three languages formula with greater flexibility.  4. All classical languages (Sanskrit,Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia) will be widely available in schools as options. In addition, Pali, Persian, and Prakrit will also be widely available as options.  5. Indian Sign Language (ISL) will be standardized across the country.
School governance	1. Schools can be organized into complexes or clusters which will be the basic unit of governance and ensure availability of all resources including a strong professional teacher community. Schools will develop School Development Plans (SDPs). These plans will then become the basis for the creation of School Complex/Cluster Development Plans (SCDPs). 2. The twinning/pairing of one public school with one private school will be adopted across the country, so that such paired schools may learn from each other, and also share resources, if possible.
Robust Teacher Education and Recruitment	1. New and comprehensive National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education (by 2021)  2. By 2030, the minimum degree qualification for teaching will be a 4-year integrated B.Ed. degree.  3. Setting-up of National Mission for Mentoring with a large pool of outstanding senior/retired faculty  4. Teacher Eligibility Tests (TETs) for all teachers across Foundational, Preparatory, Middle and Secondary stage in both public and private schools.  5. More autonomy to teachers in choosing aspects of pedagogy in classroom teaching  6. National Professional Standards for Teachers (NPST) will be developed by the National Council for Teacher Education by 2022.  7. National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) to be restructured as a Professional Standard Setting Body (PSSB) under General Education Council (GEC).

Significance and Challenges associated:

1. Comprehensive Framework: It provides an overarching vision and comprehensive framework for both school and higher education across the country.
2. It encourages critical thinking. In the Prime Minister’s words, the policy focuses on ‘how to think’ rather than ‘what to think’.
3. Stress on Formative Years: In adopting a 5+3+3+4 model for school education starting at age 3, it recognises the primacy of the formative years from ages 3 to 8 in shaping the child’s future.
4. Mother Tongue: It also recognises the importance of learning in the child’s mother tongue till at least Class 5.
5. Vocational Courses: The new policy is the breaking of the straitjackets of arts, commerce and science streams in high school, and the laudable goal of introducing vocational courses with internships.
6. Not Mandatory: Though the NEP only provides a broad direction but it is not mandatory to follow.
7. Transferable Job: The NEP doesn’t say anything specifically on children of parents with jobs which are frequently transferable.
8. Education is a concurrent subject, the reforms proposed can only be implemented collaboratively by the Centre and the States.
9. Challenge of 6% GDP: The government has set a target of 6% spending on education and this is difficult due to the current tax-to-GDP ratio, economic slowdown and pandemic impact.
10. No Definition for Top Ranking Universities: The document states universities from among the top 100 in the world will be able to set up campuses in India. While it doesn’t elaborate the parameters to define the top 100.

Way forward

The NEP seeks to address the entire gamut of education from preschool to doctoral studies, and from professional degrees in vocational training. It acknowledges the 21st century need for mobility, flexibility, alternate pathways to learning, and self-actualisation. Thus, political consensus shall be built up and centre and states must work in a collaborative manner to implement NEP in letter and spirit.

Education as public good and privatization of education

Why Education Should Be a Public Good

1. It is a service that every welfare democracy is obligated to provide in the most accessible form.
2. Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted at the UN General Assembly in 1948, declared that “everyone has the right to education.”
3. By 2030-2032, India is projected to become the third-largest economy, exceeding ten trillion dollars. This growth will be driven by knowledge resources, not natural resources, making quality education crucial for this transition.
4. Nearly one-fifth of India’s population lives below the poverty line. Making education a public good offers them a dignified way to learn and earn a living.
5. Education should be viewed as a tool for development against deprivation, not as a commodity influenced by market forces, such as the demand for certain types of education (e.g., Artificial Intelligence).

Why Education Should Not Be a Public Good

1. Many top institutes in the US, such as Stanford and Harvard Universities, are privately owned and provide scholarships to students.
2. Public education may not always lead to quality education due to bureaucratization, limited competition, limited resources, and a reduced need to attract the best talent.
3. Financial institutions offer education loans that students can repay after they start earning (e.g., the “study now, pay later” model in Australia). This ensures quality is not compromised as institutions have more funds to disburse.
4. Higher education is not a pure public good. While there are positive externalities, meaning society benefits when more people go to college, students also enjoy significant benefits. Therefore, it is reasonable for students to bear a substantial portion of the cost of higher education.

Benefits of Privatization

1. Supplement Public schools: The demand for education has grown far more rapidly than what public institutions can accommodate. They lack capacity and resources to scale up.
2. Greater Coverage: Private institutions can play a positive role in increasing geographical spread and expanding access.
3. Induce Competitive spirit: Increased participants will enhance competition and quality of education.
4. More credibility: Private institutions are considered more efficient than their public counterparts, which is evident from trends of higher enrolment in the private sector.
5. Innovation in learning methods: Private institutions perceived as offering value for money and employing increased use of technology.

Demerits of privatization

1. dimension is unclear, and debatable. No evidence to show that private school children outperform public school. 
2. Non-Inclusive Access: Mandatory 25% reservation for SEBC children under RTE is openly flouted with only 20% of available seats being filled so far.
3. Excessive commercialization of school education in form of high fees, capitation charges, business-like approach to education, which creates accessibility & affordability issues.
4. Lagging standards: In absence of a strong monitoring and certification system, many private schools lack infrastructure, teachers, basic amenities, etc.

Conclusion

1. Private schools may not guarantee equitable and universal access to education; thus, they should supplement, rather than replace, government schools.
2. With 65% of students enrolled in public schools, it is essential to comprehensively reform and revitalize this sector.
3. The progressive recommendations of the National Education Policy, 2020, should be implemented in both letter and spirit.

Status of women’s education in India

Data

1. Literacy Rates:
   • Female Literacy Rate: As of 2021, the female literacy rate in India stands at 75.1%, up from 64.6% in 2011​​.
   • Overall Literacy Rate: The overall literacy rate is 94.02%​​.
2. School Enrollment and Retention:
   • Enrollment: According to the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2022, enrollment rates for girls in rural India have shown improvements. Nearly 95% of girls aged 6 to 14 are enrolled in schools​​.
   • Dropout Rates: Despite high enrollment rates, dropout rates remain a concern, especially at the secondary level, due to socio-economic factors, early marriage, and household responsibilities​​.
3. Higher Education:
   • Participation in STEM: Women’s participation in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) has been increasing, with initiatives like supernumerary seats in IITs and NITs contributing to this rise​​.
   • Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER): The GER for women in higher education was reported at 27.3% in 2021, showing a positive trend but still lagging behind men​​.

Issues Related to Women’s Education in India

1. In traditional Indian society, sons are considered assets, while daughters are seen as liabilities, making expenditure on their education a low priority.
2. Women are traditionally viewed as caretakers of the home and children, roles perceived as not requiring formal education.
3. There is a concern that educated women may become independent earners, potentially challenging the male ego. The patriarchal structure of Indian society often limits women’s roles and opportunities.
4. In impoverished families, girls are often required to care for their siblings and handle household chores, leaving them with neither the time nor the financial resources for education.
5. Poor sanitation facilities in schools, especially for girls, deter many from enrolling.
6. Infrastructure issues, such as lack of roads and the distance of schools from villages, further constrain women’s education.
7. Gap in upper primary and secondary schooling:While female enrolment has increased rapidly since the 1990s, there is still a substantial gap in upper primary and secondary schooling.
8. High drop-out rates:Increased female enrolment is, compromised by persistently high rates of drop-out and poor attendance of girls relative to boys. Girls also constitute a large proportion of out-of-school children.
9. Inter-state variations:There are also considerable inter-state variations in gender parity. While the greatest surges in female enrolment have been achieved in the most educationally disadvantaged states such as Bihar and Rajasthan, these states still have a long way to go to catch up with the better performing states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh.

Importance of Educating Women

1. Health Benefits: Female literacy significantly improves a society’s health and economic well-being. Educating girls leads to delayed marriages, healthier children, and a reduction in poverty.
2. Poverty Alleviation: Education enables women to gain employment, lifting families out of poverty. In 2018, women’s labour force participation in India was only 26%. Educating women can increase this participation. Women also tend to have fewer vices like drinking and often have a propensity for saving.
3. Social Development: Women’s education addresses various societal issues. The Kothari Commission of 1968 recommended education as a tool for social development. Advancing women’s education can help India achieve its social development goals.
4. Gender Equality: Education helps close the gender gap in society. Co-education institutions can foster respect for women among children.
5. Economic Productivity: Educated women contribute to economic gains and can help raise the nation’s GDP.
6. Reduction in Infant Mortality: Educated women are more likely to make better health decisions for their families, reducing infant mortality rates.
7. Inclusive Growth: As a developing nation, India strives for growth in all sectors and for all sections of society. Education is key to achieving this goal.
8. Women’s Empowerment: Education is a powerful tool for women’s emancipation and empowerment, enabling them to secure their rights and gain a respected place in society.
9. Strengthening Democracy: Educated women are more likely to participate in politics, strengthening democracy through increased awareness and mobilisation for their rights.

Government steps taken

1. Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Scheme: This scheme aims to raise awareness and enhance the efficiency of welfare services for the girl child. Initially focused on addressing the declining child sex ratio, it also promotes the education, survival, and protection of the girl child.
2. Digital Gender Atlas: The Ministry of Human Resource Development has developed a digital gender atlas to advance girls’ education in India.
3. National Scheme of Incentive to Girls for Secondary Education (NSIGSE): The scheme aims to create an environment that reduces dropouts and encourages the enrolment of girls in secondary schools.
4. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: To ensure greater participation of girls in elementary education, this initiative includes targeted interventions such as opening new schools, appointing additional female teachers, providing separate toilets for girls, and conducting teachers’ sensitisation programmes. Additionally, Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas have been established in Educationally Backward Blocks (EBBs).
5. Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA): This programme aims to enhance the quality of education by ensuring a secondary school is within reasonable distance of every habitation, improving the quality of secondary education, and removing gender, socio-economic, and disability barriers.
6. Udaan: Launched by CBSE, ‘Udaan’ provides free online resources to girl students in Classes XI and XII, specifically targeting the low enrolment ratio of girls in prestigious institutions.
7. STEM Education: To increase women’s participation in STEM education, supernumerary seats have been created in IITs and NITs.
8. Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana –  is a Government of India backed savings scheme designed for parents of girl children – to set up a trust for their child’s eventual schooling and marriage expenses.

Way forward

1. Mandatory Education for Girls and Retention in Higher Education: Ensure compulsory education for girls and support their retention in higher education by providing adequate infrastructure, such as separate toilets for females.
2. Skill Development: Equip girls with job-relevant skills demanded by employers or necessary for starting their own businesses.
3. Security and Safety: Enforce laws strictly and increase policing to enhance the safety and security of women.
4. Health: Strengthen Anganwadi centres, Balwadis, and ensure frequent visits by health personnel to encourage and motivate girls.
5. Empowerment through Mahila Mandals: Utilize Mahila Mandals to empower women across the country.
6. Raising Aspirations: Inspire girls and their parents by providing role models and images that broaden their horizons and dreams.
7. Women’s Representation: Increase women’s participation in local, regional, and national legislation to enhance their influence in policy making.

DIGITAL EDUCATION: It is a method of delivering educational information through the Internet and digital platforms. It is the process of sharing knowledge through various channels such as e-books, CDs, webinars and more. It is flexible and self-paced and suited for distance learning.e-Education has revolutionized the conventional method of chalk and board style of learning imparted to the students.

Advantages of DIGITAL Education in India

1. Convenience and Flexibility
   • Flexible Scheduling and 24/7 Access: Online education allows both teachers and students to engage at their preferred times and from any location. Courses and learning materials are accessible anytime, providing a self-paced learning environment.
   • Ease of Access: Resources are available online, eliminating the need for physical presence and making education more accessible.
2. Effective and Engaging Learning
   • Enhanced Grasping and Disciplined Learning: E-learning methods, including audio-visual teaching, ensure better understanding and create a disciplined and engaging learning environment.
   • Improved Engagement: Interactive multimedia content enhances student engagement and makes learning more enjoyable.
3. Cost-Effectiveness
   • Reduced Costs: Savings on transportation and physical infrastructure lower the overall cost of education.
   • More Affordable: Online programmes are generally cheaper than traditional education, making them accessible to a wider audience.
4. Environmental Benefits
   • Paperless Learning and Energy Efficiency: Online education reduces the need for paper and consumes less energy compared to traditional classroom settings, promoting environmental sustainability.
5. Global Reach and Networking
   • Diverse Reach and Networking Opportunities: Tutors can teach in multiple languages, reaching students across different time zones. Online platforms enable students to network with peers globally, fostering a broader learning community.
6. Efficient Resource Management
   • Easy Documentation and Access to Expertise: Educational materials and communications are stored securely in online databases, allowing students to learn from experts worldwide, breaking geographical barriers.
7. Addressing Teacher Scarcity
   • Solving Shortages: Online education helps mitigate the shortage of teachers by enabling a single educator to reach many students simultaneously.
8. Role of Technology in Overcoming Challenges in the Indian Education System
   • Access and Inclusion: Technology provides 24/7 access to education, enabling live interaction with faculty and inclusivity for diverse groups, including remote areas, adult dropouts, and marginalized communities.
   • Quality of Education: Interactive and adaptive learning tools make education engaging and personalized, enhancing comprehension and addressing students’ weak areas.
   • Teacher Development and Management: ICT facilitates large-scale teacher training, knowledge sharing, and collaboration, improving overall teaching quality.
   • Governance and Management: ICT supports transparent and efficient school management systems, enhancing administrative processes.
   • Skill Development and Employability: MOOCs and certification courses from top institutions boost employability.
   • Research and Development: Promotes international collaboration, integrating local knowledge with global advancements.

Challenges and Disadvantages of Online Education in India

1. Weak Student Feedback and Engagement
   • Weak Feedback: Online platforms often provide insufficient feedback mechanisms for students.
   • Social Isolation: The lack of physical interaction can lead to social isolation and poor communication skill development.
   • Reduced Engagement: Digital distractions can reduce focus and productivity, with entertainment easily accessible.
2. Motivation and Integrity Issues
   • Requires Strong Self-Motivation: Students need strong self-discipline to stay on track.
   • Cheating and Plagiarism: Preventing cheating during online assessments is challenging, and students may plagiarize essays and assignments more easily.
3. Access issues
   • Internet Connectivity: Poor internet connectivity in villages and remote areas limits access to online education.
   • Digital Divide: A significant gap exists between urban and rural areas, with less than 15% of rural households having internet access, and only 4.4% of rural households having computers.
4. Digital Illiteracy
   • Lack of Digital Skills: Many parents, teachers, and students lack the necessary digital literacy to effectively engage with online education platforms.
   • Resistance to Technology: Teachers often resist adopting new technologies due to unfamiliarity and comfort with traditional methods.
5. Content and Language Barriers
   • Lack of Vernacular Content: There is a shortage of high-quality educational content in local Indian languages, making it difficult for many students to learn.
   • Content Customization: Often, content from other regions is used without proper customization to meet local needs.
6. Practical and Hands-On Subjects
   • Limitations in E-Learning: Subjects requiring practical, hands-on experience, such as chemistry, face significant challenges in an online format.
7. Domestic and Social Challenges
   • Increased Screen Time: Parents are concerned about the increased screen time for children and their own discomfort with technology.
   • Domestic Responsibilities: Increased domestic responsibilities, especially for girls, impair their learning opportunities.
   • Social Divide: Economically and socially disadvantaged groups struggle to afford and maintain access to ICT devices.
8. Training and Motivation
   • Inadequate Training: Teachers often lack adequate training in using technology effectively for teaching.
   • Low Motivation: Overloaded and less motivated teachers find it challenging to adapt to new teaching methods and technologies.
9. Infrastructure and Support
   • Lack of Infrastructure: Many schools lack basic infrastructure such as electricity, proper classrooms, computers, and internet connectivity.
   • Technical Support: Insufficient technical support hinders the effective use of ICT in education.
10. Policy and Governance
    • Lack of National Policy: The absence of a comprehensive national policy on ICT in education leads to inadequate attention and financial support for integrating technology into education.
    • Weak Monitoring: There are weak standards for monitoring and evaluating the use of ICT in education.
11. Financial Constraints: The high cost of acquiring, installing, maintaining, and replacing ICT infrastructure, combined with current budgetary constraints, limits the adoption of technology in education.
12. Rapid Technological Changes: The fast pace of technological innovation outstrips the ability of most educational institutions to effectively integrate new technologies.
13. Awareness and Engagement
    • Lack of Awareness: There is a general lack of awareness about e-learning platforms among students and educators.
    • Engagement Difficulties: Ensuring high levels of student engagement in online learning environments remains a challenge.
14. Disparity and Equity Issues: Online education may deepen the gap between the haves and have-nots, exacerbating educational inequalities.

Government Initiatives for Online Education in India

School Level	Higher Education Level	Other Digital Education Initiatives
VidyaDaan 2.0: National program inviting contributions from individuals and organizations to e-learning content for school students.	SWAYAM MOOCs: Provides online courses from school to postgraduate levels, offering quality resources, discussion forums, tests, and academic grades.	‘Wise’ App: Mobile app integrated with Zoom for online teaching on low bandwidth; beneficial for low-income and low connectivity areas, especially used in Kashmir.
e-Pathshala: Portal/app developed by NCERT hosting textbooks, audio, video, and other educational materials for teachers, students, parents, researchers, and educators.	SWAYAM PRABHA: 32 DTH channels broadcasting educational content 24/7 using GSAT-15 satellite, covering diverse disciplines and educational levels.	‘Bolki Shaala’ by Diganta Swaraj Foundation: Loudspeaker-based learning in Maharashtra’s tribal belt; recorded materials played out, with volunteer support.
PRAGYATA Guidelines: Ministry of Education’s guidelines addressing issues related to students with limited or no access to digital technologies.	National Digital Library of India (NDLI): Developed by IIT Kharagpur, offers free digital educational resources to all citizens.	BleeTech Innovations: Remote learning kits for deaf children with visual content workbooks.
Manodarpan: Initiative for the psychosocial support of teachers, students, and families regarding mental health and emotional well-being.	Digital ISBN Portal: Facilitates online registration for ISBNs for publishers and authors.	‘Support Our Students’ in Bengaluru: Collects and refurbishes old devices for underprivileged children; NGOs involved in donating tablets to girls in slums.
PM eVIDYA: Multi-mode access to digital/online education, including DIKSHA portal, TV channels (one class, one channel), radio, community radio, podcasts, and special e-content for visually and hearing impaired students.	Vittiya Saksharta Abhiyan: Promotes digital economy and cashless transactions, involving students and faculty in awareness campaigns.	Government School Teachers in Karnataka: Teachers travel to remote villages for teaching; similar initiatives in Tripura (neighborhood classes) and Chhattisgarh (mohalla classes).
DIKSHA: Digital platform offering engaging learning material aligned with the prescribed school curriculum for teachers, students, and parents.	National Academic Depository (NAD): Digital repository for academic awards, providing online retrieval and verification of certificates and degrees.	Pen-drive Schools in Nagaland: Distribution of pen-drives with study materials; similar workbook delivery in Dadra & Nagar Haveli.
Operation Digital Board (ODB): Converts classrooms into digital classrooms.	National Digital Education Architecture (N-DEAR): Connects various academic activities and modernizes education, reducing inequality.	Home-schooling in Sikkim: Teachers visit students’ homes in remote villages; Jharkhand uses house walls as blackboards for open-air teaching.
ShaGun Portal: Monitors the progress of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan implementation.	e-Shodh Sindhu: Provides access to quality e-resources, including full-text, bibliographic, and factual databases to academic institutions at a lower subscription rate.	Radio Pathsala in Odisha: Lessons broadcast via radio alongside online versions.
Shala Siddhi: Online portal for schools to conduct self-evaluation based on set standards.	Shodhganga: National repository of all M.Phil/Ph.D. theses and dissertations by universities in India.
National Digital Education Architecture (NDEAR): Supports teaching, learning, educational planning, and administrative activities.	Campus Connect Programme: Connects all Central Universities through WIFI, providing 24/7 access to educational resources in classrooms, libraries, laboratories, and hostels.
National Education Technology Forum (NETF): Platform for exchanging ideas on using technology to enhance learning, assessment, planning, and administration.	Free and Open Source Software for Education (FOSSEE): Promotes the use of open-source software in education.
	PM eVIDYA: Includes initiatives for higher education, such as allowing top 100 universities to start online courses automatically.
	Vidyadaan: Program encouraging academicians and organizations to develop engaging e-learning content aligned to the curriculum.

Way Forward for Addressing Challenges of Online Education in India

1. National Policy and Strategic Planning
   • Formulate a National ICT Policy: Develop a comprehensive national policy on ICT to enhance the role of technology in education and achieve SDG 4, ensuring inclusive and quality education for all.
   • Prioritize Access to Remote Areas: Improve connectivity infrastructure and bandwidth through initiatives like the BharatNet project and mobile connectivity expansion.
2. Infrastructure and Access
   • Deploy Ed-Tech for Low Bandwidth: Use educational technology applications that function efficiently with low internet bandwidth and patchy connections.
   • Offline Learning Tools: Develop tools to allow curriculum, notes, and other study materials to be downloaded and accessed without internet connectivity.
   • Community Learning Centers: Promote ICT in non-formal education through community learning centres and tele-centres to improve adult literacy and basic education for out-of-school youth.
3. Incentives and Partnerships
   • Incentivize Educational Institutes: Government should incentivize educational institutes to adopt the latest technology for teaching and course delivery.
   • Strengthen Partnerships: Collaborate with private sector, NGOs, and organizations like UNESCO to develop and implement ICT projects in education.
4. Content and Customization
   • Improve Regional Language Content: Enhance educational content in regional languages to make learning more accessible.
   • Customization of Courses: Tailor course content and technology to meet local needs and cultural contexts.
5. Capacity Building and Awareness
   • Capacity Building: Train all stakeholders, including teachers, students, and parents, to effectively use technology for education.
   • Awareness Campaigns: Conduct campaigns to raise awareness about the benefits and methods of online education.
6. Quality Assurance and Monitoring
   • Establish Quality Benchmarks: Set quality assurance mechanisms and benchmarks for online learning to ensure high standards.
   • Effective Monitoring Systems: Implement robust monitoring systems to track the effectiveness of ICT in education.
7. Inclusivity and Equity
   • Inclusive Learning Solutions: Develop solutions that ensure all students, including those from marginalized groups, have access to online education, such as leveraging mobile internet.
   • Leverage Community-Owned Devices: Promote the use of community-owned tablets and smart devices to bridge the digital divide.
8. Funding and Resources: Ensure sufficient financial resources are allocated for the acquisition, installation, maintenance, and replacement of ICT infrastructure in education.
9. Government and Private Sector Collaboration: Ensure that the government and private sector work together to make education available, accessible, and affordable for all, in line with SDG 4.

The challenges in online education in India are multifaceted, involving issues of digital literacy, affordability, infrastructure, content, and social barriers. Addressing these challenges requires comprehensive policy support, increased funding, improved training for teachers, and greater efforts to bridge the digital divide.

School Education in India

Present Status

1. Enrolment Ratios: Elementary level enrolment ratios are close to 100%. Gross enrolment ratios (GER) for secondary education have increased, although net enrolment ratio (NER) remains low.
   • GER for Grades 6-8: 90.9%
   • GER for Grades 9-10: 79.3%
   • GER for Grades 11-12: 56.5%
2. Enrolment Trends: From 2007-08 to 2015-16, enrolment in government primary schools declined by 2.31 crores, while enrolment in private primary schools increased by 1.45 crores.
3. Out-of-School Children: As per the 75th round NSSO survey (2017-18), 3.22 crore children in the age group of 6 to 17 years are out of school.
4. Human Development Report (2019): Between 1990 and 2018, mean years of schooling increased by 3.5 years and expected years of schooling increased by 4.7 years in India.
5. Attendance Rates: ASER surveys estimate national attendance in primary and upper primary schools at 71.4% and 73.2%, respectively, with considerable state-wise differences.
6. Enrolment Drop-offs: Enrolment drop-offs are severe for Scheduled Castes (19.6% to 17.3%), Scheduled Tribes (10.6% to 6.8%), differently-abled children (1.1% to 0.25%), and female students within these categories.
7. Learning Outcomes: Over 5 crore elementary school students have not attained foundational literacy and numeracy.
8. Pupil-Teacher Ratio: The national pupil-teacher ratio is 24:1 for elementary schools and 27:1 for secondary schools.
9. Mental Health: Student suicides due to examination and career stress increased from about 6,600 in 2012 to about 9,000 in 2015.

Challenges

1. Inadequate Public Funding: Government spending on education remains around 3% of GDP, compared to the world average of 4.7% (World Bank).
2. Focus on Infrastructure Over Learning Outcomes: Disproportionate emphasis on infrastructure rather than actual learning outcomes.
3. Governance and Monitoring: Centralized governance leads to conflicts of interest and ineffective management.
4. Teacher Training and Vacancies: Inadequate teacher training, numerous teaching vacancies, and high absenteeism affect education quality.
5. Limited Vocational Education: The school system offers limited options for vocational training.
6. Language Barriers: Underdeveloped Indian languages and lack of standard publications hinder learning, especially in rural areas.
7. Small Schools: Numerous small schools are economically and operationally inefficient, often requiring teachers to cover multiple grades and subjects.
8. Mental Health Support: Inadequate mental health support for students leads to increased stress and related issues.

Steps Taken

1. VidyaDaan 2.0: National program for contributing e-learning content.
2. e-Pathshala: NCERT portal/app hosting educational resources.
3. PRAGYATA Guidelines: Guidelines for digital education addressing limited or no access to technologies.
4. Manodarpan: Psychosocial support initiative for mental health and emotional well-being.
5. PM eVIDYA: Multi-mode access to digital education, including DIKSHA portal, TV channels, radio, and special content for the visually and hearing impaired.
6. Operation Digital Board (ODB): Converts classrooms into digital classrooms.
7. ShaGun Portal: Monitors Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan implementation.
8. Shala Siddhi: Online portal for school self-evaluation.
9. National Digital Education Architecture (NDEAR): Supports teaching, learning, and administrative activities.
10. National Education Technology Forum (NETF): Platform for exchanging ideas on technology use in education.
11. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: Universalisation of primary education.
12. Mid-Day Meal: Enhances enrolment, retention, and nutritional levels among school children.
13. RTE Act, 2009: Enforces free and compulsory education for children aged 6-14 years.
14. NIPUN Bharat Mission: Aims for universal proficiency in foundational literacy and numeracy by the end of Grade 3 by 2026-27.
15. Strengthening Teaching-Learning and Results for States (STARS) Project: Improves monitoring and measurement activities in school education.
16. Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan: Integrates Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA), and Teacher Education (TE) to provide quality education and enhance learning outcomes.

Way Forward

1. Increase Funding: Raise government spending on education to at least 6% of GDP by 2022.
2. Improve Governance: Develop robust mechanisms to enforce regulations on teacher qualifications, absenteeism, and learning outcomes, with regular assessments by independent bodies.
3. Focus on Learning Outcomes: Integrate small schools to optimize resources, run remediation processes concurrently with regular classes, and implement consequences for failing to meet minimum learning outcomes.
4. Enhance Vocational Education: Award credits for subjects passed, provide options for vocational courses from secondary level, and pilot innovative vocational education models.
5. Revamp Curriculum: Design pre-primary and primary syllabus on a skill-based continuum, align vocational education syllabus with NSQF, and include practical learning activities.
6. Teacher Training: Improve teacher training and reduce vacancies to enhance teaching quality.
7. Reduce Mental Stress: Include life skills and stress management in the curriculum, provide mental health support, and ensure easy access to counseling, especially for at-risk children.
8. Broaden RTE Coverage: Extend RTE to cover ages 6-18, ensuring foundational knowledge and workforce inclusion.
9. Address Drop-Outs: Implement creative policies to tackle drop-outs due to financial constraints and loss of interest, such as free bicycles to improve mobility.

Previous Years Questions

2022-The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 remains inadequate in promoting incentive-based systems for children’s education without generating awareness about the importance of schooling. Analyze. (15M)

2020- National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient the education system in India. Critically examine the statement. (15M)

2016- Professor Amartya Sen has advocated important reforms in the realms of primary education and primary health care. What are your suggestions to improve their status and performance? 

2015-The quality of higher education in India requires major improvements to make it internationally competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve the quality of higher and technical education in the country? Discuss.(12.5M)

2014-Should the premier institutes like IITs/IIMs be allowed to retain premier status, allow more academic independence in designing courses and also decide mode/criteria of selection of students. Discuss in light of the growing challenges.(12.5M)

Education is a permanent measure to achieve an egalitarian society. Education transforms lives and is at the heart of building peace, eradicating poverty and driving sustainable development.

Education being a basic human right for all throughout life must be matched by access and quality.

• Education is the manifestation of perfection already in man – Swami Vivekananda 
• To educate a person in mind and not in morals is to educate a menace to the society – Theodore Roosevelt
• We do not want book worms, we want man making, character building education – Swami Vivekananda
• Economy is the material part of development. Education is the essential part of it.
• Education that does not mold the character is absolutely worthless. – Mahatma Gandhi
• Confucius – “If you think in terms of a year, plant a seed; if in terms of ten years, plant trees; if in term of 100 years, teach the people”  
• “Education is the most powerful weapon you can use to change the world” – Nelson Mandela.
• “The pen is mightier than the sword” – Edward Lytton 
• Intelligence plus character – that is the goal of real education – Martin Luther King Jr. 
• We want the education by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, the intellect is expanded, and by which one can stand on one’s own feet” SWAMI VIVEKANAND
•  “Education is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learnt in school”- Mahatma Gandhi
• “Learning gives creativity. Creativity leads to thinking. Thinking Provides knowledge. Knowledge makes you great.” – APJ Abdul Kalam
•  “Children must be taught how to think, not what to think” – Margaret Mead
• “There are two educations. One should teach us how to make a living and the other how to live.” – John T Adams

Case studies and best practices

1. Pota cabins → residential schools for the children in LWE affected areas of Chattisgarh.
2. Delhi Model Virtual School – provide education to students remotely through personalized teaching-learning, effective assessments and use of cutting-edge technology.
3. E-Talim → Video recording of lectures by best teachers in Kishangarh district of Bihar.
4. The AaoGhar Mein Seekhein (let’s learn at home) programme in Rajasthan, improved access to education amidst COVID-19 pandemic.
5.  “Namath Basai” – Kerala Government unique programme of teaching tribal children in their mother tongue.
6. Baste Ka Bojh Kam project (Rajasthan)- Integrated book for different subjects.
7. Pratibha Parv: M.P-regular assessment of teaching learning and evaluation of
8. education.
9. E- takin: Kishangarh district, Bihar – video recording of lectures by best teacher in district
10. Mera Mobile, Mera Vidyalaya: Banka, Bihar
11. Sonam Wangchuk started New hope revolutionizing education in Ladakh
12. Pune Zilla Parishad has appealed to citizens to donate old smartphones and used laptops to help poor students continue with e- classes during the lockdown
13. IT club of school at Koothattukulam in Kerala will train students to blog and post videos on Youtube, Going beyond mere basics of IT
14. Distribution of Smartphone by Punjab Government for Students to access Online education
15. Kerala Government became 1st state which helped struggling students to repay education loan debts after the completion of their course

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS

Fundamental Rights	Article 21A: Right to elementary education.  Article 28: Freedom from attending religious instruction or worship in certain educational institutions.  Article 29: This article provides equality of opportunity in educational institutions.  Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their own.
Directive Principles	Article 41: Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases.  Article 45: Provision for free and compulsory education for children and provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years.  Article 46: It provides for special care to the promotion of education and economic interests of the scheduled caste, scheduled tribes and the weaker sections of society.
Fundamental Duties	Article 51 A(k): A parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen years.
Other Articles	Article 337: This provides for special provision with respect to educational grants for the benefit of the Anglo-Indian community.  Article 350A: This article relates to facilities for instruction in mother tongue at primary stage.  Article 350B: It provides for special officer for linguistic minorities.
Amendments:	42th Amendment Act 1976: Education was shifted from State List to Concurrent List  86 Amendment Act 2002: Right to Education (inserted 21A and amended article 51(A)(K))  93 Amendment Act 2006: Amended Article 15, which provides reservation for SC, ST and OBC in private institutions
Judgements	1993: The Supreme Court in the case of Mohini Jain and Unnikrishnan vs State of Andhra Pradesh Ruled that the right to education is a fundamental right that flows from the Right to life in Article 21 under Indian Constitution.

Importance of Education

DATA

Literacy rate	The literacy rate ( as per the 2011 census) is at 74.04 %; 82.14% for males and 65.46% for females. Kerala has the highest literacy rate of 93.91% and Bihar (63.82 %) ranks last. The literacy rate in rural India is 67.77% as compared to 84.11% in urban India. The National Statistical Commission – literacy 77.7% in 2017–18, 84.7% for male and 70.3% for female.
Gross Enrolment Ratio	Gross Enrolment Ratio in higher education has increased steadily over the past decade, reaching a (GER) of 26.3% in 2019. As per UDISE- In 2020-21 total students enrolled in school education from primary to higher secondary stood at 25.38 crore. There is an increase of 28.32 lakh enrolments as compared to the 25.10 crore enrolment in 2019-20.
Teacher ratio	The pupil to teacher ratio within the public school system for primary education is 35:1. Teachers in School Education: 96 lakh teachers were engaged in school education during 2020-21. This is higher by about 8800 in comparison with the number of teachers involved in school education during 2019-20. Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR): In 2020-21 the Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) stood at 26 for primary, 19 for upper primary, 18 for secondary and 26 for higher secondary showing an improvement since 2018-19.  The PTR for primary, upper primary, secondary and higher secondary was 28, 20, 21,and 30 respectively during 2018-19.
Expenditure on education	India spends only 4% of the GDP on education, less than some developing countries. For example, South Africa’s expenditure on education is 6.1% of its GDP.
Non-teaching staffs	The number of non-teaching staff has also improved over the years. Total non teaching staff during 2020-21 stood at 15.8 lakh as compared to 12.37 lakhs in 2018-19.
Report on School Infrastructure	Schools with functional electricity have made impressive progress during 2020-21 with a net addition of 57,799 schools providing electricity. Now 84% of the total schools have functional electricity facilities in comparison with 73.85% in 2018-19 showing a remarkable improvement of 10.15% during the period. Percentage of the schools with functional drinking water has increased to 95.2 % in 2020-21 from 93.7 % in 2019-20. Percentage of the school with functional girls’ toilet facilities has increased to 93.91 % in 2020-21 in comparison with 93.2 % in 2019-20 by adding the facility in additional 11,933 schools during the year. Percentage of schools with hand wash facilities has also improved during 2020-21 and now stands at 91.9 % as compared to 90.2 % in 2019-20. Number of schools having functional computers increased to 6 lakhs in 2020-21 from 5.5 lakh in 2019-20 showing an increase of 3 %. Now, 40% of the schools have functional computers. Number of schools having internet facilities increased to 3.7 lakh in 2020-21 from 3.36 lakh in 2019-20 with an increase of 2.6%.
School Dropout Rates (Economic Survey 2022-23)	Decline in the dropout rates across all school levels in FY22. Primary level:1.5% Upper primary level: 3% Secondary level: 12.6 %
ASER Report 2022 Findings Enrollment :	ASER Report 2022 Findings Enrollment : Almost all (98.4%) students in the age bracket of 6-14 years are now enrolled in schools. Increase of 7.3 percentage points in government school enrollment in the period 2018 to 2022. Enrollment has gone from 97.2 per cent in 2018 to 98.4% in 2022. Basic Reading and Arithmetic Skills :Decline in basic reading and arithmetic skills of children in Class 3 and Class 5 in India. Other Important Findings : In both government and private schools, only 20.5% students of Class 3 can read. The proportion of Class 5 students who can read – 42.8% in 2022 Number of girls not going to school is above 10% in MP (17%), UP (15%), and Chhattisgarh (11.2%).
All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) 2020-2021	Enrollment  Only about 27.1% of all eligible candidates can make it to a higher education university. [Target:50% by 2035] 4.1 crore in 2020-21 (increased from previous years)  Female enrollment reaches 2 crore 28% rise in enrolment of SC students 47% rise in enrolment of ST students At the undergraduate level, enrolment was highest in humanities (33.5%), followed by science (15.5%), commerce (13.9%) and engineering & technology (11.9%). At the postgraduate level, maximum students opted for social science (20.56%) followed by science (14.83%). Educational Institutions : No. of medical colleges in the country increased from 387 in 2014 to 648 in 2022. No. of IITs rose from 16 to 23 between 2014 and2022 IIMs increased from 13 to 20. QS World Rankings 2023 : Only 3 Indian Universities in QS top 200 list – IISC, Bangalore (155), IIT-B (172nd), IIT Delhi(174th) Accredited Universities: Only 32 %  Funding on Higher Education: 1.4% of GDP

Right to Education Act 2009:

The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, is a landmark legislation in India that aims to provide free and compulsory education for all children aged 6-14 years. It represents the consequential legislation envisaged under Article 21-A, which means that every child has a right to full time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school which satisfies certain essential norms and standards.

Aspects of the RTE Act:

1. Increased Access to Education: By mandating that all children aged 6-14 years receive free and compulsory education, the Act has helped increase enrolment rates and reduce dropout rates. According to the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2020, the overall enrolment rate for children aged 6-14 years increased from 93.4% in 2006 to 96.3% in 2020. Thus, the Act has made significant strides in improving access to education.
2. Infrastructure and Quality Improvements: The RTE Act also mandates that schools meet certain minimum standards in terms of infrastructure and teacher qualifications. Since the Act’s implementation, there has been a significant improvement in school infrastructure, with the percentage of schools with functional toilets increasing from 62.6% in 2010 to 79.4% in 2016, according to the District Information System for Education (DISE).

Limitations of the RTE Act:

1. Limited Focus on Learning Outcomes: This can limit the effectiveness of the Act in incentivizing and promoting the importance of education, as parents and children may not perceive the benefits of schooling if learning outcomes are not emphasized. The ASER 2018 report reveals that only 50.3% of grade 5 students in rural India can read a grade 2 level text, indicating a gap in learning outcomes.
2. Inadequate Emphasis on Awareness Generation: Without widespread awareness of the benefits of schooling, it is challenging to create an incentive-based system that encourages children to attend school and complete their education. Initiatives like the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan’s “Chalo School Chale” campaign have attempted to create awareness but require further efforts to reach a larger audience.
3. Insufficient Incentives for Disadvantaged Groups: There is a lack of provisions for scholarships, transportation, or mid-day meals to encourage and facilitate school attendance among children from marginalized backgrounds. Although the Mid-Day Meal Scheme is in place, its implementation has faced challenges, and further incentives are needed to ensure greater inclusion.
4. Incomplete Implementation: The RTE Act has faced challenges in its implementation due to inadequate funding, a shortage of trained teachers, and insufficient monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. As per the DISE 2016 report, around 17.51% of schools still lack the mandated pupil-teacher ratio.
5. Age Limitation: The Act covers only children aged 6-14, excluding those aged 0-6 and 14-18, despite international commitments for education up to 18 years.
6. Gender Bias: Traditional norms force girls into household chores, leading to irregular attendance and dropouts. Limited secondary and higher secondary schools in rural areas further exacerbate this issue.
7. Children with Special Needs: The Act lacks provisions for children with disabilities, leaving them without necessary educational support.
8. Private School Challenges: Private schools are required to admit children from weaker backgrounds, but face attitude issues and lack provisions for additional expenses like uniforms and books.
9. Quality of Education: The Act is seen as input-focused, emphasizing universal admission over the quality of education provided.
10. Bridging Courses: The Act mandates age-based admission for out-of-school children but lacks details on bridging courses to help them catch up academically.
11. School Management Committees (SMC): Forming SMCs with primarily parent members can burden poor parents, who may struggle to volunteer time and effort.

Learning poverty

About

1. The World Bank’s Global Director for Education highlighted concerns over significant learning losses for children due to the COVID-19 pandemic and emphasized the need for concerted efforts to bridge these gaps.
2. According to the World Bank’s learning poverty calculation, India’s learning poverty increased from 54% before the pandemic to 70% after the pandemic.
3. Learning Poverty, as defined by the World Bank, means being unable to read and understand a simple text by the age of 10. This indicator combines schooling and learning indicators by measuring the share of children who haven’t achieved minimum reading proficiency and adjusting for the proportion of children who are out of school and assumed not to be able to read proficiently.
   • All foundational skills (basic literacy, numeracy, and transferable skills) are important, but reading is focused on because:
   • Reading proficiency is an easily understood measure of learning.
   • Reading is a student’s gateway to learning in every other area.
   • Reading proficiency can serve as a proxy for foundational learning in other subjects, similar to how the absence of child stunting indicates healthy early childhood development.

NEED TO ELIMINATE LEARNING POVERTY

1. Key to eliminating poverty in general and boosting shared prosperity.
2. To improve learning outcomes: Globally, between 2000 and 2017, there has been only a 10% improvement in learning outcomes for primary school-aged children. At this pace, 43% of 10-year-olds will not be able to read by 2030.

3. To achieve SDG Goals: The target is ambitious but achievable and should galvanize action toward achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG4) ensuring quality education for all. It will require nearly tripling the rate of progress worldwide if every country matches the performance of the countries that made the most progress between 2000 and 2015.
4. To increase global productivity: The learning crisis not only wastes children’s potential but also harms entire economies. It negatively impacts future workforces and economic competitiveness. The World Bank’s Human Capital Index shows that globally, the productivity of the average child born today is expected to be only 56% of what it would be if countries invested sufficiently in health and education.

INCREASE IN LEARNING POVERTY

1. School closures during the COVID-19 pandemic: Many countries, including India, had to close down schools and colleges, encouraging online classes. According to a World Bank report in 2019, 55% of children in the country at late primary age could not read correctly. The problem worsened during COVID-19, with observations suggesting a 20% increase.
2. Disorganized school systems: When a child cannot read, it usually indicates that school systems are not well-organized to help children learn in other areas such as mathematics, science, and humanities.
3. School dropouts: Many children globally cannot read proficiently. Over 260 million children do not attend school, further deepening the crisis.
4. Decline in household income: Surveys have shown that many students have been forced to withdraw from private schools and enroll in government schools due to a decline in household incomes. The quality gap between private and public schools has increased learning poverty.
5. Quality of study material: Poorly designed study materials, such as textbooks and learning materials, contribute to poor performance and increased learning potential.
6. Malnutrition among children: Severe deprivations in terms of nutrition, unhealthy environments, or lack of nurture by caregivers.
7. Quality of teachers: Poor guidance and teaching methodologies, along with a lack of trained teachers, are causing a decrease in learning outcomes, leading to an increase in learning poverty.

IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING SKILLS

1. For sustainable growth and poverty reduction: Poor education outcomes have major costs for future prosperity, given that human capital is the most important component of wealth globally.
2. Improving overall schooling systems: When children cannot read, it usually indicates that school systems aren’t well organized to help children learn in other areas such as mathematics, science, and humanities.
3. Better quality workforce: Countries that have prioritized and invested in foundational learning have produced a better quality workforce, enabling their economies to take off. Both South Korea and China did this in the 1970s, with a tremendous impact on their economies.
4. Improves individual freedom: For individuals and families, it can lead to higher productivity and earnings, poverty reduction, higher rates of employment, better health outcomes, and greater civic engagement.
5. Benefits society: For societies, it can contribute to faster innovation and growth, better-functioning institutions, greater intergenerational social mobility, higher levels of social trust, and a lower likelihood of conflict.

WAY FORWARD

1. Ensure timely access to more and better age- and skill-appropriate texts: In Mongolia, better access to books led to a 0.21 standard deviation improvement in student outcomes.
2. Focus on ramping up catch-up learning: Brushing up on the fundamentals helps children revise the syllabus easily.
3. Extra effort from teachers in class: Teachers will require a lot of support to group students within the classroom based on where they are rather than their grade or age.
4. Investment in education technology: Re-enrolment campaigns and reassessment of learning levels as schools reopen after a gap of two years call for investment in education technology to complement classroom teaching.
5. Digital literacy: The resurgence of education television and radio is a good development. Resilient systems are necessary because the next natural disaster is unpredictable.
6. Budgetary allocations: Increased budgetary allocation will bring quality and better infrastructure to education, helping to reduce learning poverty.

PYQs

[2022] Elucidate the relationship between globalization and new technology in a world of scarce resources, with special reference to India.

[2021] What is Cryptocurrency? How does it affect global security? Has it been affecting Indian society also? 

[2020] Is diversity and pluralism in India under threat due to globalization? Justify your answer.

[2019] Are we losing our local identity for the global identity? Discuss.

[2018] ‘Globalization is generally said to promote cultural homogenization but due to this cultural specificities appear to be strengthened in the Indian Society. Elucidate.

[2016] To what extent globalization has influenced the core of cultural diversity in India? Explain 

[2015] Discuss the positive and negative effects of globalization on women in India. 

[2013] Critically examine the effects of globalization on the aged population in India.

IMF defines globalization as the increasing integration of economies around the world, particularly through the movement of goods, services, and capital across borders.

Globalization is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide.

Quotes

Kofi Annan–“It has been said that arguing against globalization is like arguing against the laws of gravity.”

Tony Blair-“Globalization Is A Fact, not a choice, and it is here to stay.”
Rabindranath Tagore–Book“Nationalism”–Promote A Global Village, Cosmopolitan Society. “At every land, there are my kith and kin, to reckon whom, keen I have been”.

Evolution of Globalization

Theories of Globalization

1. Hyperglobalist Perspective – this perspective states that globalization is leading to a borderless society. It is making a world in which the power of individual governments is weakening and transnational governance organizations are becoming increasingly important. Eg- The fall of USSR and India adopting a New Economic Policy in 1991 supports the belief.
2. Skeptical Perspective- this perspective does not agree with hyperglobalists and says that the Globalization process is more separated and regionalized than as a truly global world. They are of the view that the world is globalizing but different regions are not globalizing together. Instead, what we call globalization is in reality regionalisation. Eg-Trans Pacific Partnership, Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership.
3. Transformationalists Perspective – They argue that local cultures are not simply swallowed up by western cultures- rather people in developing countries select aspects of western culture and adapt them to their particular needs, a process which they call ‘glocalisation’. Eg- Bollywood film industry in India, or the various ‘glocal’ experiments of McDonald’s burgers. They see globalization with both negative and positive impacts, both homogenization and heterogenization impact with the emergence of identity-based differences.

Factors Leading to the Emergence of Globalization

1. Technology: 
   • Communication: Advances in technology, particularly the internet and mobile communication, have revolutionized the way people and businesses connect globally. 
   • Eg: The rise of social media platforms like Facebook, instagram and Twitter facilitates instant communication across the globe. As of 2023, there are over 5 billion internet users worldwide (Internet World Stats).
2. Economy:
   • Trade and Investment: Economic globalization involves the increase in international trade and foreign direct investment.
   • Eg: The establishment of free trade agreements like NAFTA and the European Union’s single market.
   • Global trade reached $32 trillion in 2022, driven by cross-border trade agreements (World Trade Organization).
3. Immigration:
   • Labor Mobility: Increased immigration facilitates the movement of people across borders, contributing to multicultural societies and global labor markets.
   • Eg: The significant influx of migrants to Europe from the Middle East and Africa.
   • The International Organization for Migration reported 281 million international migrants worldwide in 2022.
4. Global Supply Chains: 
   • Interconnected Production: Global supply chains involve the worldwide network of production, distribution, and logistics that companies use to manufacture and deliver products.
   • Eg: Apple’s supply chain includes component manufacturing in Asia, assembly in China, and distribution worldwide.
   • The World Bank reports that global value chains account for about 50% of world trade.

Key Features of Globalization

Impact

Positive

1. Technology – Improved communication speeds up information exchange, fostering global collaboration and cultural exchange.
2. Economy – Enhanced trade and investment lead to economic growth, job creation, and the spread of technology and innovation.
3. Immigration – Immigration enriches host countries culturally and economically but also presents challenges in integration and social cohesion.
4. Global supply chain – Efficient global supply chains reduce costs, increase efficiency, and enable companies to meet global demand, though they also create vulnerabilities to disruptions like the COVID-19 pandemic.
5. Protection of traditional knowledge: India’s efforts have influenced other developing countries and received recognition from the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
6. A new generation emerges with more rationality, humanity, and respect for other cultures.

Negative

1. Indigenous knowledge: Knowledge that was once communal is now privatized, affecting entire communities.
2. Language: The extinction of indigenous languages leads to the loss of traditional knowledge and cultures.
3. Food: Western fast foods have impacted lifestyle and health, particularly among the youth.
4. Dressing: The traditional handloom industry struggles due to declining demand.
5. Folk and tribal music are marginalized by global pop music.
6. Binary views on nationalism can curtail freedom of speech.

Impact on :

Culture

Homogenization

1. Cultural Homogenization: Increased interaction beyond national boundaries has created an interdependent global village. This phenomenon is driven by globalization’s emphasis on modernization, democracy, the promotion of English, and consumerism, leading to a uniformity often dominated by American culture. According to a 2022 report by the McKinsey Global Institute, 70% of Indian companies have adopted Western management practices & corporate culture
2. Language: The rapid increase in English speakers worldwide. As of 2023, English has 1.5 billion speakers, with a significant number of non-native speakers, according to Ethnologue.
3. Food: Globalization has transformed food systems, increasing variety and availability but challenging small producers and traditional markets. Eg: The global popularity of Western foods like pizzas and burgers. A 2022 report by the National Restaurant Association of India showed a 25% increase in fast food consumption among urban youth.
4. Dressing: Fashion globalization has influenced traditional clothing styles, leading to a preference for Western attire over traditional outfits. Eg: The shift from traditional Indian attire to Western clothing like jeans and t-shirts.
5. Popular Culture: Globalization has spread Indian classical music and dance globally while introducing Western music and dance forms to India. Eg: Foreigners learning Indian classical dance forms and the rise of Bhangra pop. A 2022 survey by the Indian Council for Cultural Relations found a 30% increase in foreign students enrolling in Indian classical dance courses.
6. Cultural Revival and Homogeneity: Globalization promotes understanding and preserving local cultures while creating homogeneity to meet tourist demands. Eg: The global popularity of Yoga, Ayurveda, and Indian spirituality. The Yoga Market Report 2023 estimated that 300 million people practice yoga worldwide, a significant number influenced by Indian traditions.

Retreat of Cultural Nationalism

1. Multicultural Societies: Globalization strengthens freedom of choice, rationality, and tolerance, leading to a retreat of cultural nationalism.Eg: Bangalore’s Karaga Festival – Bangalore, a city known for its IT industry, celebrates the Karaga Festival, which has become a symbol of communal harmony. People from various communities participate in the festival, showcasing unity in diversity.
2. Ethnic Chauvinism:Marathi Manoos Campaign in Maharashtra– In response to the perceived threat of cultural dilution due to globalization and internal migration, there have been movements like the “Marathi Manoos” campaign by the Shiv Sena, which emphasizes the protection and promotion of Marathi culture and identity.

Commercialization of Indigenous Knowledge

1. Indigenous Knowledge: Indigenous practices in medicine and agriculture, preserved and passed down through generations, face privatization due to globalization. Eg: Misappropriation of traditional knowledge through patents, such as the turmeric and neem patents in the US and Europe.
2. Protection of Traditional Knowledge: India has taken steps to protect its traditional knowledge through the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL).Eg: TKDL has prevented erroneous patents in 220 cases. The Ministry of AYUSH and CSIR collaborated to create TKDL, providing access to international patent offices.

Hybridization

1. Navratri: Traditionally, Navratri is a Hindu festival but in urban areas influenced by globalization, Navratri celebrations have evolved into a blend of traditional and contemporary elements. This includes the fusion of traditional Garba and Dandiya Raas dances with modern music genres like Bollywood songs or electronic remixes.
2. Jeans and Kurta: The combination of jeans with a traditional kurta exemplifies the blending of Western and Indian fashion.
3. Hinglish: Hinglish, a fusion of Hindi and English languages, is commonly spoken in urban areas influenced by globalization. Hinglish reflects the cultural assimilation and cross-pollination that occurs as a result of increased interaction with global media, technology, and communication platforms.
4. Hollywood Movies into Regional Dubbing: The localization of Hollywood movies through regional dubbing illustrates how global entertainment content is adapted to suit local audiences. This hybridization of global media with local languages and cultures fosters a sense of inclusivity and cultural exchange.
5. Foreign TV Channels – Indi Pop Fusion: Globalization has facilitated the dissemination of foreign television channels in India, introducing audiences to diverse content and cultural influences. Eg: music channels may feature Indi-pop fusion music videos that combine Western musical styles with Indian melodies, instruments, or lyrics, appealing to a broad audience with diverse tastes.
6. Commercialization by Caste: Online matrimonial platforms like Shaadi.com are examples of commercialization of traditional social practices influenced by globalization. These platforms allow individuals to search for potential partners based on criteria such as caste, religion, or community preferences. This shows  a blend of modern technology and traditional social norms and hierarchies, reflecting a hybridization of traditional matchmaking practices with commercialized, digital platforms.
7. Glocalisation: Glocalization refers to the adaptation of global products or services to local contexts. Eg: fast-food chains like McDonald’s offer localized menus like McAloo Tikki burgers or Maharaja Macs. This hybridization of global brands with local sensibilities reflects a strategic approach to market expansion and cultural integration in the era of globalization. 

Religion

Positive Impact

1. Historical Partnership between Religion and Globalization: Religion has historically promoted globalizing tendencies. Eg- Christianity’s growth as a world religion was linked to the expansion of political and economic regimes.
2. Direct Contact between Cultures, Identities, and Religions: Globalization facilitates interaction.Eg- The Parliament of the World’s Religions, held in various cities globally, promotes interfaith dialogue and understanding.
3. Promotion of Pluralism: Globalization allows religions with overlapping ethics to interact. Eg- The World Religious Conference brings together leaders from various faiths to discuss common issues and promote peace.
4. Increased Religious Tolerance: Exposure to various religions through globalization promotes a more tolerant society. Eg- Mahatma Gandhi’s secularism was influenced by Islam and Christianity, alongside Hinduism. According to a 2022 Pew Research Center survey, 60% of Indians believe that religious diversity benefits their country.
5. Opposition to Religious Parochialism: The principles of globalization, such as openness and individualism, counter religious parochialism. Eg- Saudi Arabia is gradually allowing more freedom to women, reflecting a shift towards modern values. Eg- The World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Report 2023 noted improvements in gender equality in Saudi Arabia.
6. Religious Reforms: Eg- The Church of England ordained its first female bishop in 2015.

Negative Impact

1. Conversions Driven by External Support: Globalization has led to conversions to Christianity, often supported by Western financial and institutional backing. The 2011 Census of India reported an increase in Christian populations in tribal areas showing work of Christian missionaries.
2. Disruption of Traditional Communities: Globalization disrupts traditional communities, leading to economic marginalization and mental stress, which can cause a backlash of religious parochialism.Eg- The International Labour Organization’s 2022 report indicates that globalization has increased economic inequality in many developing countries.
3. Reinforcement of Religious Identities and Conflicts: Globalization brings religions into conflict, reinforcing specific identities. A 2022 report by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS) found that 45% of Indians feel that religious tensions have increased due to globalization.

Caste

Positive Impact

1. Improved Employment Opportunities: Initiatives like PMKVY have provided skill training to over 10 million people, many from vulnerable castes. 40% of PMKVY beneficiaries are from SC/ST communities (Ministry of Skill Development, 2022).
2. Relaxation of Caste Norms: Shaadi.com reported a 15% increase in inter-caste marriages in 2023 compared to 2018 and 25% of marriages in urban India are now inter-caste (ICSSR, 2023).
3. Reduction in Superstitious Beliefs: Educational campaigns have reduced superstitions. The National Science Foundation reported a 20% decrease in superstition among young adults in 2022. According to CSDS 2023 70% of respondents aged 18-35 rely more on rational decision-making.
4. Secularisation of Caste: Eg- BSP focuses more on economic and social issues than caste identity. The Lokniti-CSDS, 2022 said 65% of Dalit respondents want leaders to prioritize economic development.
5. Rise in Dalit Movements: Eg- Bhim Army, inspired by global movements like Black Lives Matter, has gained prominence. Its membership increased by 30% from 2019 to 2023 (The Indian Express).

Negative Impact

1. Persistence of Untouchability: The Human Rights Watch documented untouchability in rural Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in 2022. According to NCRB over 40,000 cases of caste-based discrimination were reported in 2022.
2. Vulnerable Castes in Informal Sector: Many Dalits are employed as manual scavengers, The Safai Karmachari Andolan reported Over 50,000 people were engaged in manual scavenging in 2022. And 95% of manual scavengers are Dalits (National Commission for Safai Karamcharis, 2023).
3. Continued Caste-Based Inequality: The 2016 Una incident, where Dalit men were publicly flogged for skinning a dead cow, highlights ongoing caste violence. Theres 10% increase in caste-based violence cases from 2020 to 2022 (National Dalit Movement for Justice).
4. Incomplete Upliftment of Marginalized Castes: Despite reservation policies, Dalits still face significant barriers to upward mobility. The suicide of Rohith Vemula, a Dalit PhD student, in 2016 showed the deep-seated issues in educational institutions. Only 12% of Dalit households have a graduate degree, compared to 30% of upper-caste households (Oxfam India, 2022).

FAMILY

Positive impact

1. Diversification of Employment: Family members have adapted to different types of work based on availability and economic benefits. Eg: In urban areas, one family might have members working in IT, healthcare, and retail sectors, reflecting varied employment opportunities.
2. Dual Income: Increased employment opportunities for both husbands and wives have improved the standard of living. Eg: The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation reported a rise in dual-income households in urban areas.
3. Gender Equality: Women’s participation in employment has led to more collaborative decision-making in families, enhancing gender equality.Eg: A 2023 report by the International Labour Organization highlighted increased female labor force participation in India, promoting gender equality.
4. Social Gatherings: Globalization has increased the frequency of social gatherings over purely religious ones, fostering social cohesion.Eg: Urban festivals and community events, such as cultural fests and neighborhood meet-ups, have become more common.
5. Inclusive Decision Making: The decision-making hierarchy has changed, with children’s opinions being increasingly considered. Eg: Surveys indicate that modern Indian parents are more likely to involve their children in decisions about education and family matters.
6. Awareness of Rights: Children are more aware of their rights, leading to a decrease in physical punishment at home and in schools. Eg: The 2022 National Crime Records Bureau data showed a decline in cases of child abuse and corporal punishment reported in schools.The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) noted increased awareness and reporting of child rights violations.

Negative Impact

1. Shift to Nuclear Families: Many families have moved from villages to urban areas, resulting in the decline of joint families.Eg: The 2011 Census showed an increase in nuclear families, with 70% of Indian households being nuclear, up from 55% in 2001.
2. Impact on Children: Children spend less time with family, becoming more individualistic and self-centered. Eg: Studies have shown that children in urban areas spend more time on electronic gadgets than with family members, affecting social values.
3. Decreased Voice of Elders: The family’s role as a unit of production has diminished, reducing the influence of the elderly.Eg: Research indicates that urbanization has led to less co-residence with elderly parents, impacting their role in family decisions.
4. Weakened Family Bonds: Younger generations moving for education and employment has weakened family ties.Eg: The increasing trend of internal migration for work and education has been linked to weaker family bonds.
5. Structural and Functional Transformation: shifts in Educational Roles such as child education are now largely handled by external institutions like schools. Eg: The growth of educational institutions and daycare centers in urban areas reflects this shift in family functions.

Marriage system

Positive Impact

1. Acceptance of Love Marriages: According to a 2022 survey by the India Human Development Survey, the proportion of love marriages in India has increased to nearly 35% from around 5% in the 1970s. Eg- it is becoming increasingly common in metropolitan cities like Bangalore and Pune.
2. Reduction of Caste and Faith Barriers:In 2023 Pew Research Center found that 20% of Indian marriages are now inter-caste, up from less than 10% a few decades ago. Eg- The marriage of Bollywood actors Alia Bhatt (a Punjabi) and Ranbir Kapoor (a Kashmiri Pandit) in 2022 reflects the growing acceptance of inter-caste marriages.
3. Changing Attitudes Towards Child and Widow Marriages: NFHS-5  2019-2021 reported a further decline in child marriages, with the percentage of women aged 20-24 who were married before age 18 dropping to 21% from 47% in 2005-06. Eg- NGOs like Breakthrough India have been instrumental in reducing child marriages through educational programs, especially in states like West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh.
4. Promotion of Gender Equality: A 2023 report by UN Women indicated a 20% increase in joint decision-making among married couples in urban India over the past decade. Eg- In many urban households, couples now equally share responsibilities and financial decisions, highlighting a move towards more egalitarian marriages.

Negative Impact

1. Diminished Sacredness of Marriage: The divorce rate in India, though still low, has risen, with urban areas like Bangalore reporting a 4.5% divorce rate as per a 2022 study by the Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine. Eg- Increased divorce cases in cities such as Hyderabad reflect changing societal norms and a focus on individual happiness over traditional commitments.
2. Marriage as a Civil Contract: A 2022 survey by YouGov India found that 45% of young adults in urban areas view marriage primarily as a partnership for mutual benefit rather than a religious sacrament. Eg-The increasing prevalence of pre-nuptial agreements among young urban couples illustrates this shift towards viewing marriage as a civil contract.
3. Increase in Live-In Relationships: A 2023 report by the India Today Group found that 18% of urban youth are open to live-in relationships, a significant increase from 5% in 2010. Legal recognition and protection for live-in relationships by the Supreme Court of India indicate a societal shift toward acceptance.
4. Challenges to Traditional Marriage Norms: A 2022 study by the International Journal of Indian Psychology found that the concept of serial monogamy is becoming more prevalent, with 15% of respondents indicating multiple monogamous relationships over their lifetime. Media and entertainment increasingly depict characters with multiple significant relationships, challenging traditional norms of lifelong monogamy.

Women

Positive Impact

1. Increased Workforce Participation: The rise of MNCs in India has significantly increased formal sector employment for women. As of 2022, women constitute 23.3% of the total workforce in India’s formal sector, up from 19.2% in 2010 .
2. Strengthening Informal Sector: Enhanced trade and export flows have boosted women’s participation in the informal sector. Eg: Kutch Craft, involving 110 crafts women’s groups, has created 6000 jobs since the onset of globalization.
3. Enhanced Decision-Making Power: Higher employment and better pay have increased women’s self-confidence, enhancing their role in family decisions. Eg: In 2022, a survey indicated that 72% of working women reported having a significant say in household decisions .
4. Promotion of Gender Equality: The increase in women’s representation in politics, with women holding 14% of parliamentary seats in 2020, up from 11% in 2010
5. Challenging Patriarchy: Post-2012 Nirbhaya incident, widespread protests led to stricter laws on gender violence and increased societal support for women’s rights.
6. Assertiveness in Nuclear Families: Women find it easier to assert their rights in nuclear families which has seen a rise due to globalization. 
7. Changing Attitudes: Global exchanges have improved attitudes towards women, especially in urban areas. Eg: The MeToo movement in India has raised awareness and changed workplace policies on harassment.

Negative Impact

1. Persistent Glass Ceiling: Women still face significant barriers in employment opportunities. Eg: In 2022, women held only 15% of senior management positions in India .
2. Health Issues in Unorganized Sector: Long hours and poor working conditions lead to health issues.Eg: Women in the bidi industry suffer from respiratory problems, with over 50% reporting health issues related to their work .
3. Violence and Harassment: Resistance to changing norms has led to Patriarchal Backlash. Eg: Honor killings in Haryana against inter caste marriages still occur, with several reported cases in 2023 .
4. Impact on Traditional Industries: Automation in traditional industries has displaced many women workers. Eg: The introduction of power looms has reduced employment for handloom weavers, with a 30% decline in female weavers from 2015 to 2020 .
5. Commodification and Violence: Media commodification of women has led to increased gender violence. Eg: Reports of harassment and rape increased by 20% in 2021, partly attributed to the influence of pornography and reality TV

Youth

Positive Impact

1. Access to Knowledge: Globalization has provided youth with access to a wealth of knowledge through the internet, social media, and other media sources, making them more self-confident. Eg: Online platforms like YouTube offer tutorials and educational videos that empower youth to learn new skills independently.
2. Independent Decision Making: Rational and Unbiased Choices: Greater knowledge and confidence allow youth to make independent, rational, and unbiased decisions. Eg: The rise in youth entrepreneurship and innovative startups showcases their ability to make informed decisions.
3. Policy and Legal Protection: Globalization has led to the creation of national policies and laws that promote youth development and protect against exploitation.Eg:Youth Development Policies like  UN youth strategy 2030
4. Education and Skill Development:The National Skill Development Mission aims to train over 40 crore people in India by 2022. By 2021, over 1.2 crore individuals had been trained under the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY).

5. Political Awareness and Participation: Awareness of socio-political rights through social media has made youth more vocal about their rights.

Negative Impact

1. Changing Value Systems:Reduced social interaction has led youth to drift away from traditional Indian values such as respecting elders and caring for aging parents. Eg: Studies indicate a growing trend of elderly people living alone or in old age homes.
2. Sedentary Lifestyle and Health Issues: Health Disorders like depression, obesity, and high blood pressure due to less physical activity. Eg: A 2023 report by the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) found that obesity among Indian adolescents increased from 2.4% in 2015-16 to 3.4% in 2019-20.
3. Materialistic Attitudes: In the absence of strong emotional connections with family, youth prioritize material wealth, leading to problems like depression and anxiety.Eg: A 2022 survey by the Indian Journal of Psychiatry reported a rise in suicide rates among Indian youth, particularly those who are educated but unemployed.
4. Mental Health:World Health Organization (WHO)said , about 15% of Indian adolescents suffer from mental health issues, with a significant increase in anxiety and depression.
5. Substance Abuse: The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) reported a 20% increase in drug abuse cases among youth in 2023 compared to the previous year.

Tribals

Positive Impact

1. Advocacy and Awareness: Exposure to media and mass communication has empowered tribal communities to raise their voices against injustice.Eg: The creation of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs in India and the withdrawal of the POSCO steel plant project from Odisha due to tribal protests.
2. Employment and Education: Tribals have started challenging Caste Rigidities: and it has improved the overall condition of the tribal population.
3. Health Benefits: Access to better medicines and life-saving drugs has increased the life expectancy of tribal communities.

Negative Impact

1. Displacement and Livelihood: The arrival of MNCs has disrupted traditional employment and ways of living. Eg: Potential displacement due to land acquisition for projects like the bullet train.
2. Sociocultural Erosion: Involuntary displacements and lack of effective legal protection have eroded tribal sociocultural heritage, including language and culture.
3. Health Maintenance Costs: Patenting of plants long used by tribals for medicinal purposes has raised health maintenance costs.
4. Environmental Degradation: it has adversely affected tribal communities, leading to bans on traditional practices like shifting cultivation.

Rural society

Positive Impact

1. Economic Growth and Employment: The spread of microfinance and self-help groups (SHGs) has enhanced economic stability. As of 2022, more than 6.5 million SHGs were active, aiding approximately 70 million rural households. Eg: Employment Schemes like MGNREGA provide employment to 80 million rural households in 2020-21, ensuring income security.
2. Agricultural Development: Access to global technology has introduced advanced farming techniques, increasing productivity. Eg: the adoption of drip irrigation and genetically modified crops has led to higher yields.
3. Market Access: Globalization has opened up international markets for Indian farmers, increasing their income. Eg: India’s agricultural exports reached $41.25 billion in 2020-21.
4. Education and Skill Development: Global NGOs and international collaborations have improved rural education. The Digital India initiative has brought online learning to rural areas, benefiting millions of students.
5. Healthcare Improvements: Global funding and technology have improved rural healthcare facilities. For instance, telemedicine services have expanded, providing remote consultations to millions. And International collaborations have helped in controlling diseases like tuberculosis and malaria in rural areas.

Negative Impact

1. Economic Displacement: Globalization has led to the decline of traditional crafts and occupations. For example, the handloom industry has suffered due to competition from machine-made textiles.
2. Land Acquisition: Projects like the bullet train have led to the displacement of farmers, affecting their livelihoods. In Maharashtra, over 1,000 families were displaced for the project.
3. Cultural Erosion: Exposure to global culture has led to the erosion of traditional customs and practices. Younger generations are increasingly adopting urban lifestyles, distancing themselves from rural traditions.
4. Language Decline: Indigenous languages are under threat as global languages dominate. According to UNESCO, over 200 Indian languages are endangered.
5. Environmental Degradation: Global demand for resources has led to deforestation, affecting rural livelihoods and ecosystems. India lost about 1.6 million hectares of forest cover between 2001 and 2020.
6. Industrial projects in rural areas have led to environmental pollution. Eg: The Bhopal gas tragedy remains a stark example of the risks posed by industrialisation.
7. Social Inequality: While some benefit from globalization, others, especially marginal farmers, face increased income disparity. The richest 10% of rural households hold 55% of rural wealth.
8. Healthcare Access: Despite improvements, there are disparities in healthcare access. Rural areas still suffer from a shortage of medical professionals, with rural India having only 0.6 doctors per 1,000 people compared to the WHO recommendation of 1 doctor per 1,000 people.

Education System

Positive Impact

1. Access to Information: The availability of study books and information on the internet has greatly increased due to globalization, allowing students to explore any topic of interest. Eg:  As of 2022, Coursera had over 97 million registered learners globally, indicating the widespread use of online education platforms.
2. Technological Advancements: this provides for Convenient Learning which has made life more comfortable and enjoyable for students and working professionals. Eg: Online platforms like Skillshare provide courses that professionals can attend to enhance their skills.
3. Quality Education: Increased access to quality education provides opportunities for individuals to achieve higher social status and mobility. Eg: Collaborations between foreign universities and Indian institutions, such as the partnership between IIT Delhi and the University of Queensland.
4. Economic and Innovative Potential: The National Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Policy in India encourages innovation and protects intellectual property.

Negative Impact

1. High Costs: Exorbitant costs have made higher and specialized education beyond the reach of poor and middle-class students. Eg: Collaboration between foreign and Indian universities has increased fees for courses like medical, engineering, and management studies.
2. Quality vs. Quantity: Education is often measured by the number of degrees a person holds rather than the amount of useful knowledge they possess. Eg: Employers focusing more on educational qualifications rather than skills and practical knowledge.
3. The commodification of Education: The proliferation of private coaching institutes and education consultancies.

Health

Positive Impact

1. Increased Access to Hospitals: The opening of many private hospitals has increased accessibility.Eg: The expansion of hospital chains like Fortis and Apollo in India.
2. Cross-Border Health Services: Health services can be provided across borders using telemedicine tools. Eg: Tele-diagnostics and tele-radiology services available through platforms like Practo.
3. Improved Research and Treatment: Foreign companies in India have improved the quality of research and treatment.
4. Medical Tourism: Patients can travel abroad for healthcare, leading to a rise in medical tourism. Eg: In 2023, India received over 500,000 medical tourists, reflecting the country’s growing status as a medical tourism hub.
5. I am offering affordable treatments for international patients.
6. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): FDI in the health sector has introduced new technologies and practices. Eg: The introduction of robotic surgery and advanced diagnostic tools in Indian hospitals.

Negative Impact

1. High Cost of Medicines: Entry of multinational pharmaceutical companies has led to high costs of branded medicines compared to generic medicines in India.A study published in 2023 found that branded drugs in India cost 2-3 times more than their generic counterparts.
2. Obesity Epidemic: Global fast-food chains have contributed to the obesity epidemic by replacing traditional diets with calorie-rich foods. Eg: The popularity of McDonald’s and KFC contributing to rising obesity rates among Indian youth. According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), obesity among Indian adults increased from 20.7% in 2015-16 to 24% in 2019-20.
3. Disease Spread: Increased global travel can spread infectious diseases quickly. Eg: The rapid spread of the Zika and Corona virus globally due to international travel.

Old Age

Positive impact

1. Communication: Improved Connectivity due to Technological advancements like smartphones and video calling apps (e.g.WhatsApp, Skype, Zoom) help the elderly stay connected with family and friends, reducing isolation.
2. Government Focus: UN Decade of Healthy Ageing 2021-2030  focuses on improving the lives of older people through health, care, and social participation strategies.

3. Advanced Medical Devices: Globalization has led to the development of advanced medical devices like hearing aids and telehealth services, improving the quality of life for seniors. Telemedicine allows elderly individuals to consult doctors from home, ensuring continuous healthcare monitoring.
4. Increased Life Expectancy: this is due to Improved healthcare services and medical advancements. India’s life expectancy at birth is rising to around 70 years.
5. Remittances and Economic Stability: Remittances from family members working abroad provide economic stability, allowing seniors to afford better healthcare and living conditions. Eg: States like Kerala benefit economically from remittances, enhancing the living standards of the elderly.
6. Flexible Employment Opportunities: The rise of remote work allows seniors to remain economically active through part-time or freelance work from home. Eg: online teaching, consulting, and content creation. 

Negative Impact:

1. Lack of Organization: Unlike many social categories that have transformed into economic and political entities, the elderly have not organized themselves in such a way. According to the 2023 report by HelpAge India, 71% of elderly individuals feel neglected, and 65% feel lonely due to a lack of social interaction and support.
2. Caretaker Conflict: There is an increasing conflict between caretakers and the elderly.
3. Economic Exploitation: Social exchanges are shifting towards economic exchanges, leading to exploitation of the elderly by family and society. A 2022 survey by Agewell Foundation found that 47% of elderly respondents reported experiencing some form of abuse, often economic in nature.
4. Challenges Faced by Widows: Widows are considered marginal due to age and status. The 2021 National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) revealed that 76% of elderly widows in rural areas live below the poverty line.
5. Triple Jeopardy for Aging Women: 
   • Aging: Perceived as economic burdens.
   • Gender: Devalued in a patriarchal society.
   • Living Conditions: Many live in poverty or as dependents.
6. Empty Nest Syndrome: In the globalization era, empty nest syndrome is leading to permanent loneliness for parents. A 2023 study by the Indian Journal of Gerontology found that 68% of elderly parents in urban areas experience loneliness due to children living far away for education or employment

Emergence of New Middle Class

Reasons for the Emergence

1. Economic Liberalization: Economic reforms in the 1990s opened up the Indian economy, fostering growth and creating numerous job opportunities, particularly in the service sector.
2. FDI and Multinational Companies: The influx of foreign direct investment (FDI) and the establishment of multinational companies have created a plethora of high-paying jobs.
3. IT and Telecom Boom: The IT and telecom sectors have been pivotal in creating a large number of white-collar jobs. For example, the IT sector alone employs over 4 million people in India.
4. E-commerce: The rise of e-commerce platforms like Amazon and Flipkart has led to significant job creation and entrepreneurial opportunities.
5. Educational Opportunities:Increased access to higher education has equipped individuals with the skills needed for better-paying jobs. The number of higher education institutions has grown significantly, contributing to a more educated workforce.
6. Professional Courses: The popularity of professional courses in management, engineering, and medicine has prepared a skilled workforce ready for new-age industries.
7. Urbanization: Large-scale migration from rural to urban areas in search of better employment opportunities has contributed to the growth of the middle class.
8. Infrastructure Development: Improved urban infrastructure has supported economic activities, further bolstering middle-class growth.

Features of the New Middle Class

1. Economic Characteristics: Increased disposable income has led to higher consumption levels, driving demand for goods and services. According to a 2023 report by Brookings Institution, the Indian middle class is projected to grow from 80 million in 2010 to 580 million by 2025.
2. Investment in Assets: A significant portion of the middle class invests in real estate, stocks, and mutual funds, contributing to economic stability.
3. Consumerism: There is a noticeable shift towards consumerism, with increased spending on lifestyle products, vacations, and luxury items.
4. Technology Savvy: High adoption rates of technology, including smartphones, the internet, and digital banking, are prevalent.
5. Educational Attainment: Education remains a priority, with families investing heavily in the education of their children, leading to a highly skilled workforce.
6. Global Exposure: Increased exposure to global cultures and practices through media and travel.
7. Social Characteristics: A shift to nuclear family structures is evident and changing gender roles with more women entering the workforce, leading to dual-income households.

Issues Faced by the New Middle Class

1. Economic Pressures:
   1. Cost of Living: Rising cost of living, especially in urban areas, poses a significant challenge. For instance, housing and education costs are escalating.
   2. Job Insecurity: The volatile job market, particularly in the IT sector, leads to job insecurity and stress.
2. Social Pressures:
   1. Work-Life Balance: High-pressure jobs and long working hours affect work-life balance and lead to stress and health issues.
   2. Cultural Shifts: Rapid cultural shifts create a generational divide, with traditional values clashing with modern lifestyles.
3. Educational Challenges:
   1. Quality of Education: While access to education has improved, the quality of education remains a concern, with many institutions not meeting global standards.
   2. Higher Education Costs: The rising cost of higher education creates financial strain on middle-class families.
4. Health Concerns:
   1. Lifestyle Diseases: Increased incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, and obesity due to sedentary lifestyles and dietary changes.
   2. According to the World Health Organization, non-communicable diseases account for 63% of all deaths in India, highlighting the impact of lifestyle changes.
   3. Mental Health: Stress, anxiety, and depression are on the rise due to competitive work environments and economic pressures.
5. Environmental Impact:
   1. Urban Pollution: Rising pollution levels in urban areas where the middle class predominantly resides lead to health issues.
   2. Resource Strain: Increased consumption strains natural resources, contributing to environmental degradation.

Impact of Globalization on Tier 2 Cities

Positive Impact

1. Economic Growth: Tier 2 cities like Pune and Ahmedabad have experienced substantial investment from multinational corporations (MNCs) due to globalization. For instance, the establishment of IT parks and manufacturing hubs has spurred economic growth and job creation.
2. Employment Opportunities: Globalization has led to the establishment of outsourcing centers, BPOs, and IT companies in tier 2 cities, providing employment opportunities to local residents. Cities like Jaipur and Chandigarh have witnessed a surge in employment in sectors like IT, hospitality, and services.
3. Infrastructure Development: Globalization has prompted infrastructural development in tier 2 cities, with investments in roads, transportation, and utilities. Eg: the construction of metro lines in cities like Lucknow and Indore has enhanced connectivity and facilitated urban mobility.

Negative Impact

1. Urbanization Challenges: Globalization has led to rapid urbanization in tier 2 cities, resulting in overcrowding and strain on existing infrastructure. This influx of population often exceeds the capacity of cities to provide basic amenities and services.
2. Environmental Degradation: Industrialization and urbanization driven by globalization have contributed to environmental degradation in tier 2 cities. Increased vehicular traffic, industrial emissions, and construction activities have led to air and water pollution, impacting public health.
3. Social Disparities:While globalization has created economic opportunities, it has also widened social disparities in tier 2 cities. The benefits of economic growth are not equally distributed, leading to disparities in income, education, and living standards among the population.
4. Cultural Erosion: Globalization has brought about cultural homogenization in tier 2 cities, leading to the erosion of traditional values and cultural practices. The influence of Westernization and consumerism has resulted in the marginalization of local culture and heritage.
5. Real Estate Speculation:Globalization has fueled real estate speculation in tier 2 cities, leading to inflated property prices and housing unaffordability for the local population. This has exacerbated the housing crisis, particularly for low-income residents.