Author: Explains

There are two major island groups in India

• The island groups of Bay of Bengal: Andaman & Nicobar Islands
• The island groups of Arabian Sea: Lakshadweep and Minicoy Islands

Let’s take these up one by one:

Andaman & Nicobar Islands:

• Also called the emerald islands.
• Location and Extent:
  • These are situated roughly between 6°N-14°N and 92°E -94°E.
  • The most visible feature of the alignment of these islands is their narrow longitudinal extent.
  • These islands extend from the Landfall Island in the north (in the Andamans) to the Indira Point (formerly known as Pygmalion Point and Parsons Point) in the south (In the Great Nicobar).
• Origin: The Andaman and Nicobar islands have a geological affinity with the tertiary formation of the Himalayas, and form a part of its southern loop continuing southward from the Arakan Yoma.
• The entire group of islands is divided into two broad categories:
  • The Andaman in the north, and
  • The Nicobar in the south.

They are separated by a water body which is called the Ten degree channel.

• The Andaman islands are further divided into:
  • Great Andamans
    • North Andaman
    • Middle Andaman
    • South Andaman
  • Little Andaman

Little Andaman is separated from the Great Andamans by the Duncan Passage.

• Chief Characteristics:
  • These are actually a continuation of Arakan Yoma mountain range of Myanmar and are therefore characterized by hill ranges and valleys along with the development of some coral islands.
  • Some smaller islands are volcanic in origin e.g. the Barren island and the Narcondam Island. Narcondam is supposed to be a dormant volcano but Barren perhaps is still active.
  • These islands make an arcuate curve, convex to the west.
  • These islands are formed of granitic rocks.
  • The coastal line has some coral deposits, and beautiful beaches.
  • These islands receive convectional rainfall and have an equatorial type of vegetation.
  • These islands have a warm tropical climate all year round with two monsoons.
  • The Saddle peak (North Andaman – 738 m) is the highest peak of these islands.
  • The Great Nicobar is the largest island in the Nicobar group and is the southernmost island. It is just 147 km away from the Sumatra island of Indonesia.

Lakshadweep Islands:

• These islands were earlier (before 1^st November 1973) known as Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands.
• Location:
  • These are scattered in the Arabian Sea between 8°N-12°N and 71°E -74°E longitude.
  • These islands are located at a distance of 280 km-480 km off the Kerala coast.
• Origin: The entire island group is built of coral deposits.
• Important islands:
  • Amindivi and Cannanore islands in the north.
  • Minicoy (lies to the south of the nine degree channel) is the largest island with an area of 453 sq. km.

Source

• Chief Characteristics:
  • These consist of approximately 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited.
  • These islands, in general, have a north-south orientation (only Androth has an East-West orientation.
  • These islands are never more that 5 metres above sea level.
  • These islands have calcium rich soils- organic limestones and a scattered vegetation of palm species.
  • One typical feature of these islands is the formation of crescentic reef in the east and a lagoon in the west.
  • Their eastern seaboard is steeper.
  • The Islands of this archipelago have storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders on the eastern seaboard.
  • The islands form the smallest Union Territory of India.

Other than the above mentioned two major groups, the important islands are:

• Majauli: in Assam. It is:
  • The world’s largest freshwater (Brahmaputra river) island.
  • India’s first island district
• Salsette: India’s most populous island. Mumbai city is located on this island.
• Sriharikota: A barrier island. On this island is located the satellite launching station of ISRO.
• Aliabet: India’s first off-shore oil well site (Gujarat); about 45 km from Bhavnagar, it is in the Gulf of Khambat.
• New Moore Island: in the Ganga delta. It is also known as Purbasha island. It is an island in the Sunderban deltaic region and it was a bone of contention between India and Bangladesh. In 2010, it was reported to have been completely submerged by the rising sea water due to Global warming.
• Pamban Island: lies between India and Sri Lanka.
• Abdul Kalam Island: The Wheeler Island near the Odisha coast was renamed as Abdul Kalam island in 2015. It is a missile launching station in the Bay of Bengal. The first successful land-to-land test of the Prithvi Missile was conducted from the mainland and it landed on the then uninhabited ‘Wheeler Island’ on November 30, 1993.

Now that we are done with this part, let’s try to attempt some questions from the past UPSC examinations:

Prelims:

1996

Question: ‘Saddle Peak’ the highest peak of Andaman and Nicobar islands is located in

A. Great Nicobar

B. Middle Andaman

C. Little Andaman

D. North Andaman

Ans. D

Mains:

Question: Write a short note on New Moore Island. (2006/2M)

Question: Write a short note on Indira Point. (2007/2M)

Question: Name the main physiographic divisions of India and give the salient features of each division. (2000/15M).

Question: How do the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep differ in the geological evolution and topographical conditions? (1998/15M)

The Indian desert is also known as the Thar Desert or the Great Indian Desert.

Location and Extent:

• Location – To the north-west of the Aravali hills.
• It covers Western Rajasthan and extends to the adjacent parts of Pakistan.

Geological History and Features

• Most of the arid plain was under the sea from Permo-Carboniferous period and later it was uplifted during the Pleistocene age. This can be corroborated by the evidence available at wood fossils park at Aakal and marine deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer (The approximate age of the wood fossils is estimated to be 180 million years).
• The presence of dry beds of rivers (eg Saraswati) indicates that the region was once fertile.
• Geologically, the desert area is a part of peninsular plateau region but on the surface it looks like an aggradational plain.

Chief Characteristics:

• The desert proper is called the Marusthali (dead land) as this region has an arid climate with low vegetation cover. In general, the Eastern part of the Marushthali is rocky, while its western part is covered by shifting sand dunes.
• Bagar: Bagar refers to the semi-desert area which is west of Aravallis. Bagar has a thin layer of sand. It is drained by Luni in the south whereas the northern section has a number of salt lakes.
• The Rajasthan Bagar region has a number of short seasonal streams which originate from the Aravallis. These streams support agriculture in some fertile patches called Rohi.
• Even the most important river ‘Luni’ is a seasonal stream. The Luni originates in the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli Range, near Ajmer and flows towards the southwest into the Rann of Kutch.
• The region north of Luni is known as the Thali or sandy plain.
• There are some streams which disappear after flowing for some distance and present a typical case of inland drainage by joining a lake or playa e.g. the Sambhar Lake. The lakes and the playas have brackish water which is the main source of obtaining salt.

• Well pronounced desert land features:
  • Sand dunes: It is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes, transverse dunes and barchans. [Barchan – A crescent-shaped sand dune, the horns of which point away from the direction of the dominant wind; Longitudinal dune – A sand dune with its crest running parallel to the direction of prevailing wind]

Image Source

• Mushroom rocks
• Shifting dunes (locally called Dhrians)
• Oasis (mostly in its southern part)

Of the total coastline of India (7517 km), that of the peninsula is 6100 km between the peninsular plateau and the sea. The peninsular plateau of India is flanked by narrow coastal plains of varied width from north to south.

On the basis of the location and active geomorphologic processes, these can be broadly divided into two parts:

• The western coastal plains
• The eastern coastal plains.

We now take them up one by one:

The Western Coastal Plain

1. Extent: The Western Coastal Plains are a thin strip of coastal plains with a width of 50 kms between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats.

2. Subdivisions: Extending from the Gujarat coast in the north to the Kerala coast in the south, the western coast may be divided into following divisions:

• Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat,
• Konkan coast in Maharashtra,
• Goan Coast in Karnataka, and
• Malabar coast in Kerala

Note: Kutch and Kathiawar, though an extension of Peninsular plateau (because Kathiawar is made of the Deccan Lava and there are tertiary rocks in the Kutch area), they are still treated as an integral part of the Western Coastal Plains as they are now levelled down.

3. A coastline of submergence: The western coastal plains are an example of submerged coastal plain. It is believed that the city of Dwaraka which was once a part of the Indian mainland situated along the west coast is submerged under water.

4. Characteristic Features:

• The western coastal plains are narrow in the middle and get broader towards north and south. Except for the Kachchh and Kathiawar coastal region, these are narrower than their eastern counterpart.
• The coast is straight and affected by the South-West Monsoon winds over a period of six months. The western coastal plains are thus wetter than their eastern counterpart.
• The western coast being more indented than the eastern coast provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours. Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Navha Sheva, Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are some of the important natural ports located along the west coast.
• The western coastal plains are dotted with a large number of coves (a very small bay), creeks (a narrow, sheltered waterway such as an inlet in a shoreline or channel in a marsh) and a few estuaries. The estuaries, of the Narmada and the Tapi are the major ones.
• The rivers flowing through this coastal plain do not form any delta. Many small rivers descend from the Western Ghats making a chain of waterfalls.
• The Kayals – The Malabar coast has a distinguishing feature in the form of ‘Kayals’ (backwaters). These backwaters are the shallow lagoons or the inlets of the sea and lie parallel to the coastline. These are used for fishing, inland navigation and are important tourist spots. The largest of these lagoons is the Vembanad lake. Kochi is situated on its opening into the sea.

The Eastern Coastal Plain

1. Extent: The Eastern Coastal Plains is a strip of coastal plain with a width of 100 – 130 kms between the Bay of Bengal and the Eastern Ghats

2. Subdivisions: It can be divided into two parts:

• Northern Circar: The northern part between Mahanadi and Krishna rivers. Additionally, the coastal tract of Odisha is called the Utkal plains.
• Coromandel Coast (or Payan Ghat): The southern part between Krishna and Kaveri rivers.

3. A coastline of emergence: The eastern coastal plain is broader and is an example of an emergent coast.

4. Characteristic features:

• The eastern coastal plains are wider and drier resulting in shifting sand dunes on its plains.
• There are well-developed deltas here, formed by the rivers flowing eastward in to the Bay of Bengal. These include the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri.
• Because of its emergent nature, it has less number of ports and harbours. The continental shelf extends up to 500 km into the sea, which makes it difficult for the development of good ports and harbours.
• Chilika lake is an important feature along the eastern coast. It is the largest salt water lake in India.

Significance of the Coastal Plains region:

• These plains are agriculturally very productive. The western coast grows specialized tropical crops while eastern coasts witnessed a green revolution in rice.
• The delta regions of eastern coastal plains have a good network of canals across the river tributaries.
• Coastal plains are a source of salt, monazite (used for nuclear power) and mineral oil and gas as well as centres of fisheries.
• Although lacking in adequate natural harbours, with a number of major and minor ports, coastal plains are centres of commerce and have attracted dense human settlements.
• The coastal regions of India are noted for tourist centres, fishing and salt making.

Now that we are done with this part, let’s try to attempt some questions from the past UPSC examinations:

Prelims:

Question: Assertion (A): The eastern coast of India produces more rice than the western coast.

Reason (R): The eastern coast receives more rainfall than the western coast.

Ans. C (Assertion is right but reason is wrong)

Mains:

Question: Assess the significance of coastal regions in the economic development of India. (2009/ 15 marks)

In the previous posts, we studied the Himalayan and Peninsular river systems in detail. Before we move further, let’s list the key differences between them:

The Shifting Courses of Rivers:

An interesting phenomenon observed in the case of most of the peninsular and extra-peninsular rivers is that they have shifting courses, especially in their lower reaches. In the upper reaches, the Himalayan rivers have the tendencies of river capturing.

Wondering why a river shifts its course? There can be numerous reasons as to why a river shifts its course. It could be a response to physiographic changes or it could be a part of its natural evolution e.g. fast-flowing rivers are prone to silting up as they surge down the hills and spread out on the plains, allowing sand and suspended matter to deposit in their slower, wider depths. Over time, the deposits create resistance, forcing the river to move to an area of lower resistance. This leads to a shift in its course.

The ancient Saraswati river, which provided an abode for the early Aryan settlers presents a typical example of shifting courses and river capturing. Descending from the Himalayan ranges, its initial course during the prehistoric period was passing near Churu (about 2000 to 3000 BC) and the Luni river was one of its tributaries.

Source

It gradually shifted towards west till it joined the Satluj near Ahmadpur. Later on, the water of its upper course was captured by a tributary of the Ganga river, as a result of which, its lower course became dry. This gave birth to the Yamuna river, an important tributary of the Ganga river system. Even today, the dry valley of the Saraswati river is found in the Rajasthan area in the form of Ghaggar valley.

Source

Similar shifting has also been observed in the rivers of Punjab during historical past. The records of 3rd century BC show that the Indus flowed more than 130 km east of its present course, through the now practically dry beds of the deserted channel, to the Rann of Kachchh which was then a gulf of the Arabian Sea. Later on it gradually shifted west and occupied its present position.

Even the entry of Brahmaputra into the plains of Assam is an outcome of the process of river capturing. According to geologists, during early days, the Tsangpo river of Tibet taking an easterly course used to join the Irrawaddy river (Myanmar) through the Chindwin, which was then a large river, transporting huge quantity of water. Later on, a small river flowing along the southern slopes of the Himalayas through its headward erosion captured the water of the Tsangpo river, and thus helped in the evolution of the stream of Brahmaputra.

Kosi and Gandak are notorious for changing their courses during floods.

With this, we conclude our discussion on the Indian Drainage system. Let’s now try to attempt some related questions from the past UPSC examinations:

Prelims

(1997)

Question: The Alamatti is on the river:

A. Godavari

B. Cauveri

C. Krishna

D. Mahanadi

Ans. C

Question: In the map shown in the given figure, river labelled as 1,2,3 and 4 respectively:

A. Kosi, Gomati, Ghaghara and Gandak

B. Kosi, Ganga, Gomati and Ghaghara

C. Gandak, Ganga, Gomati and Ghaghara

D. Teesta, Gomati, Ghaghara and Kosi

Ans. A

(1998)

Question: Which of the following east-flowing rivers of India has rift valley due to down warping?

A. Damodar

B. Mahanadi

C. Son

D. Yamuna

Ans. A

(2000)

Question: Which one of the following statements is not true?

A. Ghaggar’s water is utilised in the Indira Gandhi canal

B. Narmada rises from the Amarkantak region

C. Nizam Sagar is situated on the Manjira river

D. Penganga is a tributary of the Godavari.

Ans. A

(2002)

Question: The correct sequence of the eastward flowing rivers of the Peninsular India from north to south is

A. Subarnarekha, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Pennar, Cauvery and Vaigai

B. Subarnarekha, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari, Cauvery, Vaigai, and Pennar

C. Mahanadi, Subarnarekha, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Pennar and Vaigai

D. Mahanadi, Subarnarekha, Krishna, Godavari, Cauveri, Vaigai and Pennar

Ans. A

(2003)

Question: What is the correct sequence of the rivers – Godavari, Mahanadi, Narmada and Tapi in the descending order of their lengths?

A. Godavari – Mahanadi – Narmada – Tapi

B. Godavari – Narmada – Mahanadi – Tapi

C. Narmada – Godavari – Tapi – Mahanadi

D. Narmada – Tapi – Godavari – Mahanadi

Ans. B

(2006)

Question: Which one of the following statements is not correct?

A. Mahanadi river rises in Chattisgarh.

B. Godavari river rises in Maharashtra.

C. Cauvery river rises in Andhra Pradesh.

D. Tapti River rises in Madhya Pradesh.

Ans. C

Question: Between which of the following was the ancient town of Takshasila located?

A. Indus and Jhelum.

B. Jhelum and Chenab.

C. Chenab and Ravi.

D. Ravi and Beas.

Ans. A

Question: From north towards south, which one of the following is the correct sequence of the given rivers in India?

A. Shyok – Spiti – Zaskar – Satluj

B. Shyok – Zaskar – Spiti – Satluj

C. Zaskar – Shyok – Satluj – Spiti

D. Zaskar – Satluj – Shyok – Spiti

Ans. B

(2007)

Question: Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists:

List-I List-II

A. Betul 1. Indravati

B. Jagdalpur 2. Narmada

C. Jabalpur 3. Shipra

D. Ujjain 4. Tapti

A) A1 B4 C2 D3

B) A4 B1 C2 D3

C) A4 B1 C3 D2

D) A1 B4 C3 D2

Ans. B

Question: Which of the following rivers originates at Amarkantak?

A. Damodar

B. Mahanadi

C. Narmada

D. Tapti

Ans. C

Question: Assertion (A): River Kalinadi is an east-flowing river in the southern part of India.

Reason (R): The Deccan plateau is higher along its western edge and gently slopes towards the Bay of Bengal in the east.

Ans. D (A is false but R is true)

Mains:

Question: There is no formation of deltas by rivers of the Western Ghat. Why? (2013/10 marks)

Question: What are the causes for dominant dendritic pattern of drainage in the Gangetic plains? (2010/5M)

Question: Why do the rivers of west coast not form a delta? (2006/2M)

Question: Describe the major characteristics of rivers of peninsular India. (2003/10M)

Question: Write a short note on two prominent left bank tributaries of river Ganges. (2001/2M)

Question: Why do the rivers of the peninsular India have well defined rigid channels in sharp contrast to the Himalayan rivers? (1995/2M)

Question: Name the major international rivers flowing through India. What countries/States are covered by the Ganga and Godavari rivers on their course from their source to the sea? (1980/2M)

The Peninsular Drainage:

The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one. This is evident from the broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, and the maturity of the rivers.

Evolution:

Three major geological events in the distant past have shaped the present drainage systems of Peninsular India:

• Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to its submergence below the sea during the early tertiary period. Generally, it has disturbed the symmetrical plan of the river on either side of the original watershed and left just the upper parts of west flowing rivers above the sea level.
• Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the Peninsular block was subjected to subsidence and the consequent trough faulting. The Narmada and The Tapi flow in trough faults and fill the original cracks with their detritus materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers.
• Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from north-west to the southeastern direction gave orientation to the entire drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period.

River-Systems:

The peninsular river system can be categorised into the following sections:

• The East flowing rivers – the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers make deltas at their mouths.
• The West flowing rivers:
  • Narmada and Tapi along with other small rivers originating from the Western Ghats and falling in the Arabian Sea form estuaries in place of deltas. This is due to the fact that these rivers, especially Narmada and Tapi, flow through hard rocks and are not able to form distributaries before they enter the sea.
  • Although these west flowing rivers of Sahyadri form only about 3% of the areal extent of basins of India, they contain about 18% of the country’s water resources.

Wondering what is the difference between a delta and an estuary? Let’s see:

Source

Source

• The Western Ghats running close to the western coast act as a water divide between the major Peninsular Rivers discharging their water in the Bay of Bengal and the small rivulets joining the Arabian Sea.
• The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son, originating in the northern part of the Peninsula belong to the Ganga river system.
• The Peninsular rivers are characterized by fixed courses, absence of meanders and non-perennial flow of water. The Narmada and the Tapi which flow through the rift valley are, however, exceptions.

A brief account of the major Peninsular river systems is given below:

Smaller rivers flowing Towards the West:

The rivers flowing towards the Arabian Sea have short courses ( Because their origins lie closer to the sea, and the Western Ghats act as a water divide). Several of these small rivers are important for the production of hydroelectricity because of steep slopes and waterfalls.

Gujarat:

• The Shetruniji – It rises near Dalkahwa in Amreli district.
• The Bhadra – It originates near Aniali village in Rajkot district.
• The Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village in Panchmahal district.
• Sabarmati
• Mahi

Maharashtra:

• The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district
• The Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district and falls in the Karwar Bay.
• The source of Bedti river lies in Hubli Dharwar and traverses a course of 161 km.
• The Sharavati is another important river in Karnataka flowing towards the west. The Sharavati originates in Shimoga district of Karnataka and drains a catchment area of 2,209 sq. km. The famous Jog or Gersoppa Falls (289m) made by Sharavati river are the highest untiered waterfalls in India.

Goa:

• Mandovi
• Juari

Kerala:

• Bharathapuzha – It is the largest river of Kerala. It is also known as Ponnani. It originates from Annamalai hills and flows into the Arabian Sea at a place called Ponnani.
• The Periyar – It is the longest and the second largest river of Kerala. [Largeness of a river is related to its basin size and the volume of water flowing in the river. At the same time when we say that a river is the longest, it means that we are referring to its geographical length]
• The Pamba river – It falls in the Vembanad lake.

Small Rivers Flowing towards the East:

There are small rivers which join the Bay of Bengal, though small, these are important in their own right.

• The Subarnrekha
• the Baitarni
• the Brahmani
• the Vamsadhara
• the Penner
• the Palar
• the Vaigai

The Ganga River System

• The Ganga river system is the largest in India having a number of perennial and non-perennial rivers originating in the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsula in the south, respectively. It accounts for 26.3% of the geographical area of the country and is shared by ten states.
• Ambala is located on the water divide between Indus and Ganga.
• Origin: It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in the Uttarkashi district of Uttaranchal. Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the Ganga.

• The river-course:
  • The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.
  • From here, it flows first to the south, then to the south-east direction to reach Allahabad. Here it is joined by the Yamuna.
  • Further, near Rajmahal hills, Ganga turns south-east and bifurcates at Farakka into Bhagirathi – Hugli in West Bengal and as the Padma in Bangladesh.
  • The river finally discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal near the Sagar Island.

Source

• Important left bank tributaries of the Ganga:
  • Ramganga
  • Gomati
  • Ghaghara
  • Gandak
  • Kosi
  • Mahananda
• Important right bank tributaries of the Ganga:
  • Son
  • Yamuna

Some important tributaries and their characteristic features:

The Brahmaputra River System:

Source

• Origin: The Brahmaputra has its origin in the Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake. Mariam La separates the source of the Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar Lake.
• The river-course:
  • Most of the course of the Brahmaputra lies in Tibet, popularly known as Tsangpo. It flows eastwards parallel to the Himalayas. It receives a large number of tributaries in Tibet. The first major tributary is the Raga Tsangpo meeting the Tsangpo near Lhatse Dzong.
  • After reaching Namcha Barwa, it takes a “U” turn (also known as Hair Pin turn) and enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh through the deep Dihang or Siang gorge of Himalayas. Here initially it is called as Siang and then as Dihang.
  • It is joined by Dibang, Lohit, Kenula and many other tributaries and finally forms the Brahmaputra in Assam.
  • It then enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward. In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known as the Jamuna. [Note: The Tista was a tributary of the Ganga prior to the floods of 1787 after which it diverted its course eastwards to join the Brahmaputra.]
  • The Jamuna and Ganga confluence at Goalundo and afterwards are called as the Padma. Further south, Padma is joined by Meghna (Barak river in India) and thence onward it is known as Meghna to finally merge in the Bay of Bengal.
• It is called:
  • The Tsangpo in Tibet ( Tsangpo = ‘the purifier.’)
  • The Brahmaputra in India
  • The Jamuna in Bangladesh
• Major left bank tributaries:
  • Burhi Dihing,
  • Dhansari (South)
  • Kalang
• Major right bank tributaries:
  • Subansiri ( It has its origin in Tibet and is an antecedent river.)
  • Kameng
  • Manas
  • Sankosh
• Characteristic Features:
  • River Brahmaputra is a little longer than the river Indus.
  • It forms a spectacular Grand Canyon – like canyon in Tibet.
  • The river is nearly 16 km wide at Dibrugarh and forms many islands, the most important of which is Majuli. Majuli is the world’s largest riverine island and India’s first island district.
  • The Brahmaputra has a braided channel. It carries a lot of silt and there is excessive meandering.
  • The Brahmaputra is well-known for floods, channel shifting and bank erosion. This is due to the fact that most of its tributaries are large, and bring large quantity of sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its catchment area.

The Indian Drainage System

The Indian drainage system consists of a large number of small and big rivers.

It is an outcome of:

• The evolutionary process of the three major physiographic units
• The nature and characteristics of precipitation.

Classification of Drainage Systems in India:

1. On the basis of discharge of water – the Arabian Sea drainage and the Bay of Bengal drainage:

On the basis of discharge of water (orientations to the sea), the drainage system of India may be grouped into:

• the Arabian Sea drainage
• the Bay of Bengal drainage

They are separated from each other by the Delhi ridge, the Aravalis and the Sahyadris (water divide is shown by a line in the following map).

Source: NCERT

Nearly 77 percent of the drainage area consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc. is oriented towards the Bay of Bengal while 23 percent comprising the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Periyar systems discharge their waters in the Arabian Sea.

1. Rivers of the inland drainage basin (endorheic basin): When a river does not reach the sea but disappears into the sand, such a region is called an area of inland drainage. Inland drainage streams are ephemeral streams (short-lived). E.g.:

• The Ghaggar river in Haryana, which is supposed to be remnant of the proverbial ancient Saraswati river, gets lost in dry sands near Hanumangarh in Rajasthan.
• The Luni river in Rajasthan originates near Ajmer and after flowing through Thar desert gets lost in the Rann of Kutch.
• The Aksai Chin region in Ladakh too has some inland drainage.

2. On the basis of the size of the watershed:

• Major river basins – with more than 20,000 sq. km of catchment area. It includes 14 drainage basins such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna, the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc.
• Medium river basins – with catchment area between 2,000-20,000 sq. km incorporating 44 river basins such as the Kalindi, the Periyar, the Meghna, etc.
• Minor river basins – with catchment area of less than 2,000 sq. Km, these include 55 river basins.

3. On the basis of the mode of origin, nature and characteristics:

• The Himalayan drainage, and
• The Peninsular drainage.

There is no clear-cut line of demarcation between these two drainage systems, as many of the peninsular rivers like the Chambal, Betwa, Sind, Ken and Son are much older in age and origin than the Himalayan rivers.

Let’s follow this line of classification and look at the drainage system of India in detail. We begin with the Himalayan drainage.

The Himalayan Drainage system:

• It consists of the rivers originating in the Himalayan and trans-Himalayan region. It further consists of three river systems namely:
  • the Ganga,
  • the Indus, and
  • the Brahmaputra river systems.
• Since these are fed both by the melting of snow and precipitation, rivers of this system are perennial.
• The various geographical features made by the Himalayan rivers are:
  • In upper reaches (Youthful stage): Gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids, waterfalls, truncated spurs etc.
  • In plain areas or middle part (Mature stage): While entering the plains, they form depositional features like flat valleys, ox-bow lakes, flood plains, braided channels, and deltas near the river mouth. Over the plains, they display a strong meandering tendency and shift their courses frequently.

Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage System:

There is a difference of opinion about the evolution of the Himalayan Rivers. However, geologists believe that:

1. A mighty river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the entire longitudinal extent of the Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and onwards to Sind, and finally discharged into the Gulf of Sind near lower Punjab during the Miocene period some 5-24 million years ago.

Evidences: The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik and its lacustrine origin and alluvial deposits consisting of sands, silt, clay, boulders and conglomerates support this viewpoint.

2. It is opined that in due course of time Indo–Brahma river was dismembered into three main drainage systems:

• the Indus and its five tributaries in the western part;
• the Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries in the central part; and
• the stretch of the Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan tributaries in the eastern part.

The dismemberment was probably due to the Pleistocene upheaval in the western Himalayas, including the uplift of the Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted as the water divide between the Indus and Ganga drainage systems.

Likewise, the downthrusting of the Malda gap area between the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau during the mid-pleistocene period, diverted the Ganga and the Brahmaputra systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal.

Let’s take up the three major river systems of the Himalayan drainage individually:

1. The Indus River System

• It is one of the largest river basins of the world. A little over one-third of the Indus basin is located in India; in the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. The rest of the portion is in Pakistan.
• The Indus also known as the Sindhu, is the westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in India.
• Origin: It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Kailash Mountain range (Tibetan region). In Tibet, it is known as ‘Singi Khamban; or Lion’s mouth.
• The river-course:
  • The Indus cuts through Himalayas and enters India near Damchok.
  • flows in India only through the Leh district in Jammu and Kashmir.
  • It enters into Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region through a deep gorge near the hair-pin bend of Nanga Parbat.
  • It finally discharges into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.
• The right-bank tributaries of Indus:
  • Shyok
  • Gilgit
  • Hunza
  • Nubra
  • Kabul
  • Khurram
  • Tochi
  • Gomal
  • Sangar
  • Kunar
• The left-bank tributaries of Indus:
  • Zaskar
  • ‘Panjnad’ joins Indus a little above Mithankot). The Panjnad is the name given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely:
    • Satluj
    • Beas
    • Ravi
    • Chenab
    • Jhelum
  • Chief Characteristics:
    • The Indus drains the largest number of glaciers of Himalayas, Ladakh, Zaskar, and Kailash.
    • The Indus plain has a very gentle slope.

Let’s look at some important tributaries of Indus:

The Indus water treaty:

The waters of the Indus river system are shared by India and Pakistan according to the Indus Water Treaty signed between the two countries on 19th September 1960. According to this treaty, India can utilise only 20 percent of its total discharge of water. The Indus water treaty was recently in news. Remember why? Read here!

Area of interest: North India, Central India, and South India.

After the decline of Harsha’s empire, a number of large states rose in North India, Deccan, and South India. 3 of the most prominent among these were – the Palas, the Pratiharas, and the Rashtrakutas.

NORTH INDIA

The political confusion created by the fall of Harshavardhana was resolved with the rise of Gurjara-Pratiharas in Central India and Palas in the East.

I. Political Background

-The Pala empire founded by Gopala around 750 AD. They were majorly a power in Bihar but also ruled over Bengal.

-The Pratiharas ruled from Kanauj and often clashed with the Palas and the Rashtrakutas giving rise to what is known as the ‘tripartite struggle’.

II. Literature and Language

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Ramacharitam	Sandhyakaranandin	Sanskrit Epic poem	Complex composition as each verse offers two meanings. One related to Ramachandra of Ayodhya and the other about Pala ruler Ramapala	Pala Empire

III. Religion

The changes introduced in the preceding era (300 AD – 600 AD) continued.

A. Hinduism

The popularity of Brahmanical bhakti cult increased. Vaishnavism and Saivism rose to popularity due to sustained patronage from dynasties.

B. Buddhism

Hiuen Tsang and Ijing’s accounts testify the decline of Buddhism. However, Buddhism flourished in Eastern India under the Pala and Sena dynasties. Nalanda University and few other universities continued to prosper under their patronage.

Other Famous Buddhist Universities	Location
Vikramasila	Bihar
Odantapuri	Near Nalanda, Bihar
Somapuri	Paharpur, Bangladesh

The above sites were centers of Mahayana Buddhism. With the turn of millennium, new elements to existing Mahayana practices were introduced, namely complex and esoteric Tantric ideas and practices. One major outcome was growing visibility of female deities, particularly Tara in diverse forms. This introduced complex rituals often oriented to sexual practices.

C. Jainism

Not much support was found in the North and Jainism was fading in the North.

IV. Architecture

A. Mahavira in Paharpur, Bengal(now Bangladesh)

• Know for its crucifix (cross shaped) basement plan.

B. Mahabodhi Temple, Bodhgaya

• The temple itself as it stands now is largely a Colonial Period reconstruction of the old 17th century design but many sculptures in the niches in the temple are dated to the 8th century Pala Period.
• The first shrine, located at the base of the Bodhi tree, is said to have been constructed by King Ashoka; the vedika around it is said to be post-Mauryan, of about 100 BCE;
• Known for its unusual design. It is, strictly speaking, neither Dravida nor Nagara – it is narrow like a Nagara temple, but it rises without curving, like a Dravida one.

C. Monasteries

• Vikramasila university was established by king Dharampal. Nalanda University was renovated. Most of these buildings have vanished.
• The monasteries were imposing rectangular buildings, each with an open courtyard, enclosed by a covered verandah which leads into cells, arranged on the four sides.

Nalanda University

Vikramsila University

V. Art

A. Sculptures – Pala School of sculpture

• Derives its features from, both, the Sarnath and the Mathura schools
• Detailed sculptures but delicate ornamentation.
• Back-slabs are a unique feature of the sculptures.
• Has many sub-schools. 2 most important are Nalanda school and Bodhgaya School.

Nalanda School of sculpture

• Art from stucco, stone and metal(most specifically bronze).
• Synthesis between the Sarnath school from the Gupta period and the local bihar tradition.

Nalanda bronzes

• Remarkable bronze is a 4-armed avalokiteshwara which is a good eg. of male form in tribhanga
• Images of Tara became very popular. Growing curvilinear lotus stalk and her right hand in Abhaymudra.

Bodhgaya School of sculpture

• Has elements from the Matura school.
• Seated Buddha
• Standing image of Buddha broken off at mid thighs
• Elongated halo with the flame like motif around its perimeter.

B. Paintings – Pala School of painting

• The earliest examples of miniature painting in India were executed under the Palas.
• These paintings are found in Bengal and Bihar region, mostly produced in the buddhist centers of learning like Nalanda, Vikramsila, etc.
• Were initially done on palm leaves while later we see a shift towards painting on
• Buddhism remained the chief subject. Besides Buddhism, few paintings were dedicated to Hinduism.
• Scenic paintings like that of banana and coconut trees are also seen prominently.
• The Pala painting is characterized by sinuous lines and subdued tones of color.
• It is a naturalistic style that resembles the ideal forms of contemporary bronze and stone sculpture and reflects some feeling of the classical art of Ajanta.
• The Pala art came to a sudden end after the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries at the hands of Muslim invaders in the first half of the 13th century.
• Ashtasahasrika-Prajnaparamita is a very popular manuscript. 5 leaves from the manuscript are shown below.

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CENTRAL INDIA

I. Political Background

The Rashtrakutas dynasty was founded by Dantidurga in 754 AD with its capital in Malkhed, Maharastra. Their rule continued till the end of the 10^th Century.

II. Literature and Language

This period saw the development of Kannada and Sanskrit. The trinity poets of this time – Pampa, Ranna, and Ponna made immense contributions to Kannada.

Literary contributions were few under the Rashtrakutas.

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Kavirajamarga	Amoghavarsha I	Poetic Works	Earliest work in Kannada	Rashtrakutas

III. Religion

The Rashtrakutas were tolerant in religious views and patronized Saivism, Vaishnavism and Jainism. The revival of Hinduism that began during the Guptas got a boost.

Though Jainism did not spread outside India like Buddhism, but continued to exist in Western India and Karnataka.

Even Muslim traders were allowed to settle and Islam was preached. Unfortunately, Buddhism saw a decline.

IV. Architecture

The Rashtrakutas temples are majorly rock cut. Art and architecture at Ellora and Elephanta cave temples are remarkable contributions of the Rashtrakutas.

A. Cave Temples

The vesara style reached its culmination under the Rashtrakutas. Deccan architecture shows the hybridization of Nagara and Dravidian style ie. Vesara style. These

1. Ellora – Kailashnath temple

• Is located in Ellora, Maharashtra
• This temple is considered the greatest achievement in Rashtrakutan architecture built under the patronage of Krishna I.
• It is a rock-cut temple built in Dravidian style with a Nandi shrine.
• It is carved out of a monolithic rock.
• Some of these caves are dedicated to Buddhism.

2. Elephanta Caves

• are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Islands in Mumbai Harbour.
• It has Hindu and Buddhist caves
• The Hindu caves are dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• The rock cut architecture of the caves has been dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries.
• Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

V. Art

A. Ellora Caves

1. Shiva and Parvati’s Wedding

2. Ravana shaking the Kailash mountain

3. The Dashavatara Cave – illustrate ten incarnations of Vishnu. One being Vishnu rescuing Bhoodevi.

Other than these, Ramayana theme is well depicted in this temple.

B. Elephanta Cave Scultpures

1. Trimurti

• The three heads are said to represent three essential aspects of Shiva: creation, protection, and destruction

2. Gangadhara panel

• Shiva as Nataraj performing the Tandava (cosmic dance).

3. Gangadhara Panel

4. Ardhanarishvara Panel

Other than the above, Wedding of Shiva, Shiva slaying Andhaka and Yogisvara are other important scultures.

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SOUTH INDIA

South India witnessed the weakening of the mighty Pallavas giving way to the imperial Chola Empire. Few significant works of art and architecture are as follows

Bahubali

• Bahubali , a much revered figure among Jains was the son of Rishabanath, first Jain tirthankara.
• He is said to have meditated motionless for one year in a standing posture (Kayotsarga) and that during this time, climbing plants grew around his legs.
• After his year of meditation, Bahubali attained omniscience (Kevala Jnana).
• According to Jain texts, Bahubali’s soul was liberated from the cycle of births and deaths (moksha) at Mount Kailsh.
• Bahubali is also called Gommatesha because of the Gommateshwara monolithic statue dedicated to him.
• The statue was built under Ganga dynasty in Sravanabeligola in Karnataka around 981 AD.
• It is one of the largest free-standing statues in the world

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References and image credits

1. NCERTs
2. NIOS
3. CCRT site
4. http://www.indianetzone.com/35/features_pala_sculpture_indian_sculpture.htm
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Ganga_dynasty
6. http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_chts_laxman.asp

Area of interest: North India, Deccan India & South India

The political situation became complex with the passing away of the Guptas and the demise of the Vakataka rulers. Vassals of the Guptas became independent in the North.
In the Deccan and far South too, a multiplicity of powers were witnessed.

NORTH INDIA

Political Background

Harshavardhana (590 AD to 648 AD)

The fall of the Gupta rulers paved the way for domination of the Later Guptas, Maukharis and Pushyabhutis in the North. Harsha, though a Pushyabhuti ruler of Thaneswar ruled from Kanauj, which was originally the seat of Maukharis, with whom he contracted a marriage alliance. Harsha is celebrated as last ‘Hindu’ ruler in the North post the Gupta era.

Literature and Language

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Kadambari	Banabhatta	Romantic Sanskrit Novel	Romantic attachment between Chandrapeeda and Kadambari
Harshacharita	Banabhatta	Harsha’s biography in Sanskrit	An account of Harsha’s ancestry and his early life	Harsha
Priyadarshika	Harsha	Sanskrit play		Harsha
Nagananda	Harsha	Sanskrit play		Harsha
Ratnavali	Harsha	Sanskrit play	About a princess Ratnavali and a great King Udayan. One of the first references of Holi found in the text	Harsha
Mahaviracharita	Bhavabhuti	Sanskrit play	Based on the early life of Rama	Yashovarman of Kannauj
Malatimadhava	Bhavabhuti	Sanskrit play	The love story between Malati and Madhava	Yashovarman of Kannauj

Religion

All religions were patronized under Harshavardhana’s reign. He was a Shaivite, but later Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism.

Hiuen Tsang who visited Harshavardhana’s empire noted Buddhism was declining in India while Brahmanism was on rise.

Art and Architecture

The art and architectural contributions of Harsha’s period are very few and mostly followed the Guptas. Harshavardhana’s realm is associated with the construction of numerous stupas and monasteries. Harsha patronized Nalanda University with his liberal endowments.

The brick temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur with its rich architecture is assigned to the period of Harsha.

Lakshamana temple, Sirpur

• The Lakshamana temple is located in the village Sirpur of Chattisgarh.
• It is dedicated to Lord Vishnu

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DECCAN INDIA

Political Background

The late sixth century is marked by rise of Badami Chalukyas around the North Eastern part of Karnataka. The empire was founded by Pulakesin I. Pulakesin II (610 – 642 AD ) is considered the greatest ruler of the house.

Literature and Language

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Aihole Prasasti	Ravi Kirti	Pulakesin II’s eulogy	Mentions defeat of Harshavardhana by Pulekesin II when Harsha tried expanding towards the Deccan	Pulakesin II
Vikramankadevacharitam	Bilhana		An epic in honor of Vikramaditya VI	Western Chalukyan ruler, Vikramaditya VI

Religion

Chalukyans were both Vaishanavas and Shaivites but had a greater inclination towards Vaishnavism and Jainism. Nonetheless, they patronized all religions.

Architecture

A. Caves

Cave temple architecture was also famous under the Chalukyas. Their cave temples are found in Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik.

B. Temples

Chalukyan temples are found in 3 places – Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal.

Badami – Badami cave temples are a complex of 6 temples – 4 Hindu, 1 Jain & 1 possibly Buddhist.

Cave 3 – Vishnu image

Aihole – Ladkhan temple, Durga temple and Ravana Phadi Temple

Durga temple

• It is an apsidal temple of 550 AD. The apsidal shape is similar to the shape of a Buddhist chaitya.
• Temple has an open pillared verandah serving as pradakshinapatha instead of a dark ambulatory path.
• Temple shows improvements in shikhara development as compared to the Gupta period.

Ravana Phadi Temple

• Ravana Phadi is a rock-cut cave with distinct sculptures made during the Chalukyan era.
• Among numerous sculptures is the Goddess Durga is portrayed in the carving. She appears to be slaying Mahishasura (panel above).

Pattadakal – This temple complex has 10 temples – 4 Dravida style, 4 in Nagara style, 1 Vesara style & 1 Jain Sanctuary. The Papanath temple is the Nagara style temple.

Virupaksha Temple

• Largest and grandest temple in Pattadakal
• Built in 8^th Century by Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate her husband’s (Vikramaditya II’s ) victory over Pallava ruler.

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SOUTH INDIA

Political Background

The Pallavas were feudatories of the Satavahanas. After the fall of the Satavahanas in the 3rd century AD, they became independent. They ruled in the Tondaimandalam area with Kachipuram as their capital. The 7^th Century marked the rise of great rulers like Mahendravarman, Narasimhavarman I and Rajasimha. The Pallava rule reached its zenith under these rulers.

Literature and Language

Work	Author	Type	Theme
Mattavilasa Prahasana	Mahendravarman I	Sanskrit	Means the ‘delight of the drunkards’. Sanskrit farse on Buddhist and Kapalika ascetics
Kiratarjuniya	Bharavi	Sanskrit	Simhavishnu
Devaram	Nayanars	Tamil	Saiva literature
Nalayradivyaprabandam	Alvars	Tamil	Vaishnava literature

Religion

The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period.

A. Hinduism

The Brahmins occupied a high place in society. Brahmanism and Brahmins were patronized by the rulers. The Pallava period witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism.

Bhakti Cult

The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. Apar and Sambandar were Shaivite bhakti saints who contributed immensely to the growth of Shaivism.

B. Buddhism and Jainism

Increased patronage of Hinduism and revival by the Bhakti movement led to the decline of Buddhism and Jainism.

Architecture

A. Temples

This era is significant for temple building activities as the Dravidian style of temple architecture began. The Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples out of rocks. We see a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic rathas which culminated in structural temples. The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas can be seen in 4 stages.

Stage I – Mahendra phase

This stage sees the development of Pallava rock-cut temples under Mahendravarman I. They were built in many places. The most important among them are Pallavaram, Mamandur, Mahendravadi, Vallam and Thalavanur.

Pallavaram Caves

Stage II – Mamallapuram phase

The second stage of Pallava architecture is represented by the monolithic rathas and mandapas found at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram). The name ‘Mammalapuram’ is derived from Narshimahavarman’s name ‘Mamalla’ which means the ‘great wrestler’.

There are 5 Rathas – Dharmaraj Ratha, Bhim Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Draupadi Ratha, Nakul Sahdev. These rathas, popularly called as the Panchapanadava rathas, signify 5 different styles of temple architecture. Dharmaraja Rath is the largest and it’s considered a precursor for the Dravidian style.

Rathas of Mahabalipuram

• The South saw the emergence of Dravida style of architecture. Earliest Dravida style is visible at Mahabalipuram where during the Pallava period were constructed different rock cut structures called rathas.
• Main shrine has a square ground plan
• The superstructure above the shrine instead of having a shikhara, has horizontal platforms each placed one above the other with the size receding upwards. This is called a vimana.
• Constructed under the patronage of Mahendravarman I and Narsimhavarman I.

The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls. The most popular of these mandapas are Varaha Madapam, Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa, Tirumurthi Mandapam and the Panchpandava Caves.

Panchpandava Caves

Stage III – Rajasimha phase

This stage witnesses the evolution of structural temples in South India. These temples were built by using the soft sand rocks. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of the early structural temples of the Pallavas.

Shore Temple

• The Shore temple is located in Mamallapuram.
• Its name is credited to its presence at the shore of Bay of Bengal.
• Built by Rajasimha.
• Made up of granite
• A Shaiva temple but also has a Vaishnava shrine

Kailasanatha Temple

• This temple is the oldest structure in Kanchipuram.
• Located in Tamil Nadu, it is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• Dravidian style temple.
• Built by Rajasimha.

Stage IV – Nandivarman phase

The last stage of the Pallava art is also represented by structural temples built by the later Pallavas. The Vaikundaperumal temple and Muktheeswara temple at Kanchipuram belong to this stage of architecture.

Vaikunda Perumal Temple

• Dedicated to Lord Vishnu
• Dravidian style

Art

The Pallavas also contributed to the development of sculpture. Apart from the sculptures found in temples, an ‘Open Art Gallery’ at Mamallpuram remains an important monument.

The Descent of the Ganga or Arjun’s penance remains the most important sculpture.

Descent of Ganga/ Arjun’s penance

• Made of a monolithic rock
• Found in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu
• Identified as Bhagiratha’s bringing Ganga down from the matted locks of Shiva
• It is also identified as Arjun’s penance
• Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Sittannavasal Jain paintings belonged to the period of Pallavas.

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References and image credits:

1. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/history-vardhana-society.htm
2. http://www.indianetzone.com/35/features_pala_sculpture_indian_sculpture.htm
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty#Architecture
4. http://www.cpreecenvis.nic.in/Database/AiholeCaveorRavanaPhadiCave_2838.aspx
5. NCERTs
6. NIOS
7. CCRT site

Areas of Interest: North India, Central India, and South India

Unlike the previous period, this period saw was marked by political stability that ensured and encouraged cultural florescence. The Guptas and Vakatakas were the major powers in north and central India respectively.

South however witnessed a transitionary period called the Kalabhra Interregnum. This transitionary period was known as the ‘Dark Ages’ and lasted for 300 years. Not much is known about this time.

More can be read here – http://www.gloriousindia.com/history/kalabhra_interregnum.html

NORTH INDIA

1. Political Background

Gupta Empire extended for close to 300 years – almost twice the duration of the Mauryan Empire and 1.5 times the British Empire.

The maps above illustrate how they unified the whole of Northern India by around 480 AD. The Gupta Empire saw many great rulers who patronized art, architecture, and science. No wonder it has been referred to as the Golden Age. (this remains contested. While art and culture flourished, society showed signs of degeneration).

Finally, the Guptas lost out to the Hunas.

II. Literature and Language

A. Sanskrit

Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas. Needless to say, Classic Sanskrit literature saw tremendous development under their patronage.

Two great epics(Mahakayva), the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were compiled around 4AD. Their importance is as follows

1. They served as a precursor to various other Sanskrit literature
2. They are the origins of many of the stories and anecdotes of the social, religious, and cultural history of India.
3. They were translated into various languages that gave them renewed relevance and meaningful reincarnation.
4. These epics in turn shaped new languages providing them with substance and style.

Puranas follow the lines of epics. Some of the earlier Puranas were compiled in this era. There are 18 Mahapuranas and 19 Upa-puranas.

The Puranas were associated with the revival of Hinduism. They were in the form of stories which made them more palatable to the masses than the earlier bramanical text – the Vedas.

Besides the epics, this period also saw the development of kavya (poetry), nataka (drama) and other literature.

Two things can be noted about plays

1. They do not come across tragedies.
2. Characters of high social status speak Sanskrit: whereas those of lower status and women speak Prakrit. This particular feature throws light on the status of Sanskrit and Prakrit in society.

The table below summarizes the important works of this time.

Work	Author	Type	Theme	Patronage
Allahabad Prasasti	Harisena	An inscription. The Allahabad Pillar also has inscriptions by Ashoka and Mughal Emperor Jahangir	Eulogy on the conquests of Samudragupta. Inscribed on the Allahabad Pillar	Samudragupta
Kumarasambhava	Kalidas	Mahakavya(epic poem)	Genealogy of Lord Rama. The Ikshvakus are also known as Raghuvanshis hence the name.
Raghuvamsa			Geneology of Lord Rama. The Ikshvakus are also known as Raghuvanshis hence the name.
Malavikagnimitra		Play	Story of love between Agnimitra, the Sunga Prince and the hand-maiden of his chief queen, Mālavikā. Also gives an account of his father Pushyamitra Sunga’s Rajasuya Yagna.
Vikramorvasiya			It’s a Sanskrit drama depicting the love story of Puruvas, a Vedic King and Urvashi. Puruvas is chosen to reflect the qualities of Chandragupt Vikramaditya.
Abhigyana Shakuntala			A sanskrit play which depicts the story of Dushyanta, king of Hastinapur, and Shakuntala, daughter of the sage Vishwamitra and the apsara Menaka.
Ritusamhara		Lyrical Poetry	A mini epic poem on six seasons (Ritu). Considered to be the earliest work of Kalidasa.	Chandragupta II
Meghaduta		Lyrical Poetry	Cloud is a messenger. An exiled yaksha who is pining for his beloved on a lonely mountain peak. When, at the beginning of a monsoon, a cloud perches on the peak, he asks it to deliver a message to his love in the Himalayan city of Alaka.	Chandragupta II
Mricchakatika	Sudraka	Plays	Mrichhakatika means a “little clay cart’. Traces the love story of Charudatta with Vasantsena. There is a hindi movie on the same work starring Rekha and Shekhar Suman.
Vinavasavadatta
Padmaprabhritaka			Bhana (short one-act monologue)
Mudrārākṣasa	Vishakhadatta		Mudrarakshasha means “Ring of the Demon”. It narrates the ascent of Chandragupta Maurya to throne.
Swapnavasavadatta, Pancharatra, Urubhanga, Madhyama-vyayoga	Bhasa		Vatya King Udayan and his queen Vasavadatta.
Vakyapadiya	Bhartṛhari	Grammar	A treatise on Sanskrit Grammar
Amarakosha	Amarasimha	Grammar	Sanskrit Grammar	Chandragupta II

Aryabhatiyam	Aryabhatta	Maths	Also mentions Suryasiddhanta. Aryabhatta is credited with the discovery of algebra. He formulated the area of triangle which led to the origin of Trigonometry. He *did not* invent zero.
Panchasiddhanta	Varahamihira	Astrology	Gives a summary of 5 schools of astrology – Surya Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Vasishtha Siddhanta and Paitamaha Siddhanta. Also discusses concepts of Trigonometry.
Brihatsamhita	Varahamihira	Astrology

III. Religion

A. Hinduism

• Vaishnavism – Bhagavatism on the rise.
• Emergence of Pauranic Hinduism

The brahmanical tradition witnessed a decisive change from what was traditionally practised as “Vedic tradition”. Vedic Brahmanism gave way to Pauranic Hinduism. Sacrifices/ Rituals were not entirely abandoned but they lost their steam.

Where Vedic Brahmanism was intimately linked with lavish sacrifices and upper varna-jatis, Pauranic Hinduism became widely popular as it was open to all varna-jatis including Shudras, women, etc and encouraged the worship of a personal deity.

Its accessibility lay in performing acts that required little investments – the giving of gifts, keeping of fasts and vows, traveling collectively to places of pilgrimages, and subscribing to local mythologies.

B. Buddhism

Buddhism no longer received royal patronage, unlike the earlier times. Samudragupta’s permission to the King of Ceylon to erect a magnificent monastery in Bodh-Gaya indicates that Buddhism was given good patronage.

Nalanda prospered under their patronage.

Post 500AD it saw a new phase in Buddhism marked by the following developments

1. Homogenization with Hinduism: Hindus practiced devotion to Buddha as a reincarnation of Lord Vishnu. In a way, Hinduism went on to assimilate Buddhism as a part/ branch of its own.

2. Humble beginnings of what later comes to be known as tantric Buddhism. The new form of text associated with this tradition, the tantras, appeared during the Gupta period, and there are indications that distinctively Tantric rituals began to be employed at this time as well. Tara is a female Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism who appears as a female Buddha in Vajrayana Buddhism. She is known as the “mother of liberation”, and represents the virtues of success in work and achievements.

This will later develop into a full-fledged Vajrayana cult and reach its peak during the Pala Empire.

C. Jainism

Jainism spread into Gujarat. At Valabhi, took place the compilation of two Jain canonical texts in two councils in the 4th and 5th centuries.

D. Shaktism and Tantrism

Shaktism and Tantrism are closely associated with cults. They started as different streams. Shaktism revolves around placing women at the center. Later this cult starts to be associated with Shaivism, where Shakti is seen as Shivas consort.

The name Tantrism is derived from sacred texts called tantras. The earliest works were written in the Gupta period. In the course of time, tantrism manages to penetrate all religions.

IV. Architecture

A. Stupas

1. Dhamekh Stupa

Originally built in 249 BCE during the reign of King Ashoka of the Maurya Dynasty, this massive and prominent structure has over time gone through several expansions and additions. This solid cylindrical shaped Stupa is made of red bricks and stone. The stone facing is chiseled and displays delicate floral carvings of Gupta origin.

B. Caves

The earliest examples of religious architecture were cave-temples which typically had exteriors decorated with relief sculpture and a single carved doorway.

Inside the shrine, ritual sculptures were placed such as a Shiva linga, and the walls were richly decorated with more carvings showing scenes from mythology.

1. Udayagiri Caves

Note4Students – There are a number of places in India with the same name, the most notable being the mountain called Udayagiri at Rajgir in Bihar and the Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves in Orissa. The caves in Orissa correspond to Jainism.

The Udayagiri caves belonging to the Gupta period are located in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.

There are about 14 caves but you need to focus on only 1 of them: Cave #5 – Dedicated to the Varaha avatar of Vishnu.

This shrine is one of the finest examples of Gupta art, the celebrated relief showing Vishnu in his incarnation as the boar-headed Varaha. Varaha’s avatar rescued the Earth from the chaos of the cosmic sea.

The scholars say that when Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) renovated the cave in this manner, he wanted to portray the rescue of Northern India from the political instability and fragmentation that it had experienced prior to the rise of the Gupta Empire.

2. Junagarh Caves

The so-called “Buddhist Caves” are not actually caves, but three separate sites of rooms carved out of stone to be used as monks’ quarters.

Unique feature = Presence of a 30-50 ft high citadel-like feature – Upar Kot in front of the prayer hall

3. Bagh Caves:

Located on the bank of the Baghani River in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh. These rock-cut caves possess the most amazing paintings known to be made by ancient man. According to legend, these caves were established by Buddhist monk Dataka. Out of the initial 9 caves only 5 have been extant.

Bagh Caves are known for Mural Paintings – thick mud plaster in brownish orange color. The most famous features of Bagh Caves are these murals made in the tempera technique.

http://www.chinkarajourneys.com/uploads/map/Bagh_murial_painting.jpg>

Over this plaster, there was done lime-priming and then paintings were laid. This is also known as the tempera technique, which refers to the use of a permanent fast-drying painting medium consisting of colored pigment mixed with a water-soluble binder media.

4. Nasik Caves

http://www.wondermondo.com/Images/Asia/India/Maharashtra/Pand.jpg>

A group of 23 caves, also called ‘Pandav-Leni’.

These caves belong to Hinayana Buddhism (have no images of Buddhas)

Contrary to what their name suggests they have nothing to do with the characters of Mahabharata (the Pandavas).

C. Temples

Not satisfied with caves, the Guptas were the first dynasty to build permanent free-standing Hindu temples. This lay the foundation of the Nagara School of Art. Temple architecture with the development of a square sanctum and pillared portico emerged during the Gupta period.

Among the 5 stages of temple development, you will find a gradual progression from flat-roofed, monolithic temples in the initial stage to the sculptured ‘shikhara’ in the later years.

Stage #1 – Temple 17, Sanchi & Kankali Temple, Tigwa.

• Flat roof temples
• Square temples
• Shallow pillared approach at the front
• Low platforms

Stage #2 – Parvati Temple, Nachnakuthara, MP

• Continued- Flat roof, square pillared approach (not shallow)
• High or upraised platforms
• Covered ambulatory around the sanctum (garbhagriha) for worshippers to do a parikrama
• Two storied temples (sometimes)

Stage #3 – Dashavatara Temple, Deogargh & Durga Temple Aihole, Karnataka

• Most of the features of 2nd stage are carried forward
• Flat roof evolved into a curvilinear roof (shikhara)
• Introduction of Panchayatan style of temple making

A Hindu temple is a Panchayatana one when the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with 4 subsidiary shrines at 4 corners making it a total of 5 shrines. The origin of the name is the Sanskrit words Pancha (5) et ayatana (containing).

Stage #4 – Ter Temple, Sholapur

• Most of the features of 3rd stage are carried forward
• Noticable change from square to rectangular shape of the main shrine

Stage #5

• Most of the features of 3rd stage are carried forward
• Introduction of circular temples with shallow rectangular projections

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Stage 3 Temples in detail

1. Dasavatara temple, Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh

Dasavatara = Das (10) + Avatara (Incarnation). The temple depicts the 10 avataras of Vishnu.

First North Indian temple with a shikhara.

Earliest known Panchayatana temple in North India.

Two river goddesses, the Ganga and Yamuna, are mentioned as attendants of Shiva and this occurs as a regular feature of temple architecture from the doorways of the Dasavatara temple.

There are 3 main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls:

1. On the west – Gajendramoksha is the story of achieving moksha, symbolically communicated by Vishnu’s suppression of an asura Who had taken the form of an elephant.

2. On the east – Nara-Narayan shows the discussion between the human soul and the eternal divine.

3. On the south – The Sheshashayana Vishnu panel is a superb piece of art

• Sheshashayana is the form of Vishnu where he is shown reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta whose seven hoods form a canopy over his crowned head
• His consort Lakshmi is massaging his right leg and two attendant figures stand behind her
• Various gods and celestials are hovering above. Lord Brahma can be seen.
• In the lower panel, the two demons Madhu and Kaitabha, in an attacking attitude, are challenged by the four personified weapons of Vishnu

2. Bhitargaon Temple, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh

source

• The first full unit temple with a Vimana.
• It is the oldest remaining Hindu temple made entirely of bricks/terracotta.
• The temple is built on a square plan with double-recessed corners and faces east. There tall pyramidal spire over the garbhagriha.
• Terracotta sculpture depicts both secular and religious theme such as deities like ganesha adi virah mahisasaur-mardani and river goddess. Myths and stories representing abduction of Sita and the penance of nara-narayan.

3. Ahichhatra Temple (Shiva Temple)

The Shiva temple at Ahichhatra belongs to the Gupta period 4th century A.D. It is famous for its two life-sized terracotta images of Ganga and Yamuna.

Ganga and Yamuna are installed in niches flanking the main steps leading to the upper terrace of the temple.

Ganga stands on her vehicle, the makara. and Yamuna on the kacchap.

V. Art

A. Sculpture

1. Mathura School

Mathura school also witnessed some development during the Gupta period. A prominent sculpture is the Standing Buddha at Matura

• Red sandstone image of the Buddha dated to 500AD
• Right hand in abhayamudra, assuring protection, and the left holding the hem of the garment.
• Smiling countenance with down-cast eyes is robed in spiritual ecstasy
• Robe covering both shoulders is skillfully represented with delicately covered schematic folds and clings to the body
• Head is covered with schematic spiral curls with a central protuberance and the elaborate halo decorated with concentric bands of graceful ornamentation.

2. The Sarnath School of Sculpture

The art of Bharhut, Amravati, Sanchi and Mathura came closer and closer; melting into one – The Sarnath School.

Its plasticity is derived from that of Mathura and its elegance from that of Amravati. Plasticity is a term used to describe a rich, three-dimensional or sculptural presence of a building.

The human figure takes center stage and nature becomes the background.

A prominent sculpture is Standing Buddha at Sarnath

• his right hand in abhayamudra.
• Unlike the delicately carved drapery folds of the Mathura Buddha, only the fringe of the diaphanous robe is here indicated.
• The eyes gaze downward, not directly at, but into the viewer
• The very fine high-grade surface seems to have a soft bloom -a specially distinctive Sarnath quality

Difference between Sarnath and Mathura School Buddha

Sarnath School	Mathura School
Relaxed attitude in the body of the sculpture. Visible bends	Mathura School had a columnar rigidity in similar works
Very fine draping – almost invisible on the body but left hanging out on the sides	In the Mathura School, the drapes were elaborate and folds were very much visible
The body in its smooth and shining plasticity constitutes the principal theme of the Sarnath artists	Mathura sculpture was more rigid
At Sarnath, the material used was cream colored sandstone	Mathura sculpture was made of moderately fine red sandstone.

Follow the link for more remarkable examples or Sarnath School Sculptures

http://www.sarnathmuseumasi.org/Gallery-No1.aspx

http://varanasi.nic.in/history/ams1.html

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References and image credits:

Mudras – http://www.buddhas-online.com/mudras.html

Timeline-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism

http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/indian.html