Geography is an important subject for UPSC aspirants. Bearing weight in both UPSC Prelims and Mains, it encompasses a comprehensive syllabus. But here is the take: there is an overlap of Geography topics in Prelims and mains. That is a great advantage for people who have opted for Geography as an option. Moreover, those who have a background in Geography will it highly incentivising. 

That said, the syllabus for the UPSC Geography optional paper is divided into Papers I & II. They are divided into Principles of Geography and Indian Geography, further divided into topics like Geomorphology, Climatology, Indian Agriculture, etc. Knowing the detailed UPSC Geography optional syllabus is the first step towards preparing well. Let’s have a closer look at the latest Geography UPSC syllabus.

UPSC Geography Optional Paper Syllabus 2024-2025

There are no major changes in the Geography topics of UPSC Mains in the current year. Those who have been preparing for UPSC do not have to worry about the addition or deletion of new topics. They can continue preparation from where they left even for the current and upcoming year. 

UPSC Geography Optional Paper Overview

UPSC Geography Optional Syllabus Paper I (Principles of Geography)

Physical Geography

Geomorphology: Factors controlling landform development; endogenetic and exogenetic forces; Origin and evolution of the earth’s crusts; Fundamentals of geomagnetism; Physical conditions of the earth’s interior; Geosynclines; Continental drift; Isostasy; Plate tectonics; Recent views on mountain building; Volcanicity; Earthquakes and Tsunamis; Concepts of geomorphic cycles and Landscape development; Denudation chronology; Channel morphology; Erosion surfaces; Slope development; Applied Geomorphology; Geomorphology, economic geology, and environment.

Climatology: Temperature and pressure belts of the world; Heat budget of the earth; Atmospheric circulation; Atmospheric stability and instability. Planetary and local winds; Monsoons and jet streams; Air masses and fronts; Temperate and tropical cyclones; Types and distribution of precipitation; Weather and Climate; Koppen’s Thornthwaite’s and Trewartha’s classification of world climate; Hydrological cycle; Global climatic change, and role and response of man in climatic changes Applied climatology and Urban climate.

Oceanography: Bottom topography of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans; Temperature and salinity of the oceans; Heat and salt budgets, Ocean deposits; Waves, currents, and tides; Marine resources; biotic, mineral, and energy resources; Coral reefs coral bleaching; Sea-level changes; Law of the sea and marine pollution.

Biogeography: Genesis of soils; Classification and distribution of soils; Soil profile; Soil erosion, Degradation, and conservation; Factors influencing world distribution of plants and animals; Problems of deforestation and conservation measures; Social forestry, agro-forestry; Wildlife; Major gene pool centres.

Environmental Geography: Principle of ecology; Human ecological adaptations; Influence of man on ecology and environment; Global and regional ecological changes and imbalances; Ecosystem their management and conservation; Environmental degradation, management, and conservation; Biodiversity and sustainable development; Environmental policy; Environmental hazards and remedial measures; Environmental education and legislation.

Human Geography

Perspectives in Human Geography: Areal differentiation; regional synthesis; Dichotomy and dualism; Environmentalism; Quantitative revolution and locational analysis; Radical, behavioural, human, and welfare approaches; Languages, religions, and secularisation; Cultural regions of the world; Human development index.

Economic Geography: World economic development: measurement and problems; World resources and their distribution; Energy crisis; The limits to growth; World agriculture: a typology of agricultural regions; Agricultural inputs and productivity; Food and nutrition problems; Food security; famine: causes, effects, and remedies; World industries: location patterns and problems; Patterns of world trade.

Population and Settlement Geography: Growth and distribution of world population; Demographic attributes; Causes and consequences of migration; Concepts of the over-under-and optimum population; Population theories, world population problems and policies, Social well-being and quality of life; Population as social capital. Types and patterns of rural settlements; Environmental issues in rural settlements; Hierarchy of urban settlements; Urban morphology; Concept of primate city and rank-size rule; Functional classification of towns; Sphere of urban influence; Rural-urban fringe; Satellite towns; Problems and remedies of urbanization; Sustainable development of cities.

Regional Planning: Concept of a region; Types of regions and regionalization methods; Growth centres and growth poles; Regional imbalances; Regional development strategies; Environmental issues in regional planning; Planning for sustainable development. 

Models, Theories, and Laws in Human Geography: System analysis in Human geography; Malthusian, Marxian, and demographic transition models; Central Place theories of Christaller and Losch; Perroux and Boudeville; Von Thunen’s model of agricultural location; Weber’s model of industrial location; Ostov’s model of stages of growth. Heartland and Rimland theories; Laws of international boundaries and frontiers.

UPSC Geography Optional Syllabus Paper II (Geography of India)

Physical Setting: Space relationship of India with neighbouring countries; Structure and relief; Drainage system and watersheds; Physiographic regions; Mechanism of Indian monsoons and rainfall patterns; Tropical cyclones and western disturbances; Floods and droughts; Climatic regions; Natural vegetation, Soil types and their distributions.

Resources: Land, surface and ground water, energy, minerals, biotic and marine resources, Forest and wildlife resources and their conservation; Energy crisis.

Agriculture: Infrastructure: irrigation, seeds, fertilizers, power; Institutional factors; land holdings, land tenure and land reforms; Cropping pattern, agricultural productivity, agricultural intensity, crop combination, land capability; Agro and social-forestry; Green revolution and its socio-economic and ecological implications; Significance of dry farming; Livestock resources and white revolution; Aquaculture; Sericulture, Agriculture and poultry; Agricultural regionalisation; Agro-climatic zones; Agroecological regions.

Industry: Evolution of industries; Locational factors of cotton, jute, textile, iron and steel, aluminum, fertiliser, paper, chemical and pharmaceutical, automobile, cottage, and ago-based industries; Industrial houses and complexes including public sector undertakings; Industrial regionalisation; New industrial policy; Multinationals and liberalisation; Special Economic Zones; Tourism including ecotourism.

Transport, Communication, and Trade: Road, railway, waterway, airway, and pipeline networks and their complementary roles in regional development; Growing importance of ports on national and foreign trade; Trade balance; Trade Policy; Export processing zones; Developments in communication and information technology and their impacts on economy and society; Indian space programme.

Cultural Setting: Historical Perspective of Indian Society; Racial linguistic and ethnic diversities; Religious minorities; Major tribes, tribal areas, and their problems; Cultural regions; Growth, distribution, and density of population; Demographic attributes: sex-ratio, age structure, literacy rate, work-force, dependency ratio, longevity; migration (inter-regional, intraregional and international) and associated problems; Population problems and policies; Health indicators.

Settlements: Types, patterns, and morphology of rural settlements; Urban developments; Morphology of Indian cities; Functional classification of Indian cities; Conurbations and metropolitan regions; Urban sprawl; Slums and associated problems; Town planning; Problems of urbanisation and remedies.

Regional Development and Planning: Experience of regional planning in India; Five Year Plans; Integrated rural development programmes; Panchayati Raj and decentralised planning; Command area development; Watershed management; Planning for backward area, desert, drought-prone, hill tribal area development; Multi-level planning; Regional planning and development of island territories.

Political Aspects: Geographical basis of Indian federalism; State reorganization; Emergence of new states; Regional consciousness and inter-state issues; International boundary of India and related issues; Cross-border terrorism; India’s role in world affairs; Geopolitics of South Asia and Indian Ocean realm.

Contemporary Issues: Ecological issues: Environmental hazards: landslides, earthquakes, Tsunamis, floods and droughts, epidemics; Issues related to environmental pollution; Changes in patterns of land use; Principles of environmental impact assessment and environmental management; Population explosion and food security; Environmental degradation; Deforestation, desertification, and soil erosion; Problems of agrarian and industrial unrest; Regional disparities in economic development; Concept of sustainable growth and development; Environmental awareness; Linkage of rivers; Globalisation and Indian economy.

You can obtain the UPSC geography optional paper Syllabus below. Alternatively, you can also download the Geography UPSC Syllabus PDF from the Official Website.

Geography Syllabus for UPSC Prelims

If you’re looking for the Geography syllabus for UPSC Prelims, it is mentioned under one board theme: 

Indian and World Geography – Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India and the World.

Major topics include India’s location, neighbours, physical features (Himalayas, plains, plateaus, deserts), river systems, climate, monsoons, agriculture, and minerals. World Geography for UPSC covers major natural regions and regional geography of developed and developing countries. 

There is physical Geography that includes geomorphology, climatology, oceanography, and biogeography. Human Geography explores population, migration, settlements, and economic activities.

Analysis of Geography Topics in UPSC Mains

The UPSC Geography optional syllabus is broad and covers both theoretical and practical aspects of physical and human geography. Here are a few practical tips for aspirants:

Divide and Conquer

UPSC Geography optional paper is split into Physical Geography (Paper I) and Indian Geography (Paper II). Prioritise topics like Geomorphology, Climatology, Oceanography, and Biogeography in Paper I, which often involve diagrams and conceptual clarity.

Focus on the Indian Context

UPSC Geography optional Paper II, the focus shifts to India’s geography, covering topics like resources, agriculture, industry, and regional planning. Stay updated on India’s current economic policies, Five-Year Plans, and environmental issues for relevant case studies.

Master the Key Theories

Paper I mentions important geographical theories like Malthusian and Marxian models, Central Place Theory, and Von Thunen’s agricultural location model. Understanding these theories will improve your answer quality.

Link Physical with Human Geography

The connection between natural features (climate, topography) and human activities (settlement patterns, agriculture) in the UPSC Geography optional paper is critical. Relate the two to write more integrated answers.

Practical Application

The UPSC geography optional Paper II’s sections on regional development and planning require knowledge of real-world scenarios. Understand how state policies, international boundaries, and regional disparities shape India’s geography and economy.

Illustrate with Diagrams

Many topics, like monsoons, plate tectonics, or river systems, are better explained with diagrams. Use maps to show India’s natural resources, population distribution, and regional planning.

Overlap with Prelims

There is an overlap between the UPSC Prelims and the UPSC Geography optional paper syllabus. It happens in topics like Physical Geography, Human Geography, and Indian Geography. 

Both cover aspects of India’s geography, including natural resources and regional development. While the Geography syllabus for UPSC Prelims provides a broader outline, the UPSC Geography optional paper syllabus goes deeper into theories, models, and regional case studies. Aspirants should keep this in mind during their preparation, especially those with Geography optional.

How to Prepare for UPSC Geography Optional Paper

Understand Syllabus: The first step is to analyse the UPSC Geography optional Paper syllabus and make a study plan according to that. It reveals which areas you should focus more on and not focus much. 

Study Materials: Begin with NCERT textbooks for geography to build a solid understanding. Afterwards, go for more advanced texts like those by Savindra Singh and Majid Hussain for all-round coverage of the UPSC Geography optional paper syllabus.

Exam Patterns: Analyze previous UPSC geography optional question papers to pinpoint key areas that require focused revision.

Writing Practice: Start writing answers after finishing a few units. Evaluate previous questions and refer to successful candidates’ responses for structure and clarity. Aim to include various perspectives, ensuring your answers align with the syllabus. Consistent practice in answer writing is critical for scoring well.

Incorporate Visuals: Enhance your answers with maps and diagrams, which can significantly improve their quality. Regular practice will make it easier to add these visuals.

Mock Tests: Regularly take mock tests to check your preparation level for the UPSC Geography optional Paper syllabus.

Booklist for Geography Optional Paper Syllabus

1. NCERT Class 11th and 12th
2. Certificate Physical and Human Geography by GC Leong
3. Physical Geography By Savindra Singh
4. Indian Geography by D R Khullar
5. Human Geography by Majid Hussain
6. Models and Theories by Majid Hussain
7. Geographical Thought by RD Dikshit
8. Geography of India by Majid Hussain
9. Settlement Geography by K Siddhartha

In the End

For rigorous preparation of the UPSC Geography optional paper syllabus, consider joining geography-focused study groups where members can practice map pointing, diagram drawing, and answer writing together. Creating collaborative mind maps and conducting peer reviews can provide fresh perspectives. 

Additionally, following prominent geographers and geography journals on social media platforms can help stay updated with current geographical phenomena and environmental changes—aspects that frequently appear in UPSC examinations.

FAQs

Does the Geography syllabus for UPSC prelims overlap with that of Mains?

Yes, the Geography syllabus for UPSC Prelims overlaps significantly with Mains. Both cover topics like Physical Geography (landforms, climate, oceanography), Indian Geography (rivers, agriculture, resources), and Human Geography (population, settlements). Prelims offer a foundational overview, while Mains requires in-depth analysis, case studies, and critical thinking.

What is the structure of the UPSC Geography optional paper?

The UPSC Geography optional paper consists of two papers: Paper I focuses on Physical Geography, while Paper II covers the Geography of India, including its socio-economic aspects and regional planning.

How do I prioritise topics in the UPSC Geography Optional Syllabus?

Start with the basics of physical geography, focusing on your strengths and weaknesses. After mastering the fundamentals, move on to human geography. For Paper II, concentrate on India’s geographical features and socio-economic conditions. This method will improve your understanding and retention.

Is Geography a good optional subject for UPSC?

Yes, Geography is a good optional subject for UPSC. It is an easy subject to understand and memorize. More students in the past have opted for Geography over sociology. Above all, the syllabus of Geography Mains overlaps with that of Prelims, which is a great advantage for UPSC aspirants.

History is an important subject for UPSC (Union Public Service Commission) Civils, appearing in both Prelims and Optional papers (if chosen). The history syllabus of Prelims differs from the UPSC history optional syllabus, though some topics or themes might overlap. UPSC history syllabus for Prelims is mandatory for every UPSC aspirant, while the optional syllabus is relevant only for those who have chosen it as their subject in Papers VI & VII, Mains. 

For your information, this article gives you a comprehensive syllabus for both Prelims and Optionals. We also give you strategies and takeaways on dealing with and completing the syllabus successfully in the UPSC exam. Keep reading.

Components of UPSC History Syllabus

1. Ancient India
2. Medieval India
3. Modern India
4. World History
5. Indian Art and Culture
6. Post-Independence India

UPSC History Syllabus in Detail

As mentioned, the scope of History in UPSC applies to both prelims and optional papers. While the prelims history syllabus is mandatory for everyone, the optional syllabus is irrelevant for those opting out of the subject in their UPSC optional paper. 

UPSC History Syllabus Prelims

Ancient History Syllabus for UPSC

• Prehistoric cultures in India
• Indus Civilization – Origins- the different phases- society, economy, and culture- Contacts with other cultures- factors lead to the decline.
• Geographical distribution and characteristics of pastoral and farming society.
• Vedic society-Vedic texts- change from Rigvedic to later Vedic phases.
• Vedic society Religion- Upanishad thought political and social organisation, the evolution of the Varna system and monarchy.
• Formation of the State and urbanisation, from the Mahajanapadas to the Nandas.
• Buddhism and Jainism- Factors for the spread of Buddhism.
• The Mauryan Empire- Chandragupta and Megasthenes.
• Asoka and his inscriptions, his dhamma, culture, administration, and art
• Society of Post-Mauryan India, BC 200- AD 300- Evolution of Jatis.
• The Satavahanas and the formation of the state in the Peninsula.
• Sangam texts and society.
• Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, Kushans, Kanishka-Contacts with the outer world.
• Different Religions- Bhagavatism, Saivism, Mahayana Buddhism and Hinayana, Jainism and Culture and art.
• The Guptas and their descendants.
• Literature Science, Arts, Economy, and Society -Modification in the political organisation of empire.

Medieval History Syllabus

• Early Medieval India. Major dynasties; Political and Agrarian organisation. Status of women, Extent of social mobility. The Arabs in Sind and the Ghaznavids.
• Cultural trends, 750-1200, Religious circumstances: the significance of temples and monastic institutions; Sankaracharya; Islam; Sufism. Art and architecture. Literature and Science.
• 13th and 14th Centuries: Ghorian invasions reasons and consequences. Delhi Sultanate under the Slave Rulers. Aladdin Khalji: invasion; administrative, agrarian and economic measures. Muhammad Tughlug’s innovations. Firuz Tughluq and the decline of the Delhi Sultanate. Development of urbanisation and commerce. Spiritual movements in Hinduism and Islam. Literature. Architecture, Technological changes.
• The 15th and early 16th Century: Key Provincial dynasties; Vijayanagara Empire. The Lodhis, First stage of the Mughal Empire: The Sur Empire and administration. Monotheistic movements: Kabir; Guru Nanak and Sikhism; Bhakti. The spread of regional literature. Art and Culture.
• The Mughal Empire, Akbar: invasion, administrative measures, Policy of Sulh-I-Kul. Jagir and Mansab systems; Jahangir, Shahjahan, and Aurangzeb: extension of Mughal empire in the Deccan; religious policies. Shivaji. Persian and regional literature. Religious idea: Abul Fazl; Maharashtra dharma. Architecture. Painting. Economy: state of affairs of peasants and artisans, escalation in trade; trade with Europe. Social stratification and position of women.
• The decline of the Mughal Empire was the reason behind the decline. Maratha power under the Peshwas. The Afghans. Regional states. The most important components of composite culture. Sawai Jai Singh, astronomer. The rise of the Urdu language.

Modern History Syllabus

• British extension: The Carnatic Wars, invasion of Bengal. Mysore and its confrontation to British expansion: The three Anglo-Maratha Wars. Regulating and Pitt’s India Acts. Early composition of the British Raj.
• Economic Impact of the British Raj: land revenue settlements like Zamindari, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari; Deindustrialization; Railways and commercialization of agriculture; an increase of landless labour.
• Cultural encounter and social changes: the inception of Western education and modern thoughts. Indian Renaissance, religious and social reform movements; Social reform events before 1857. Development of Indian middle class; the vernacular press and its effects: the rise of modern literature in Indian languages.
• Confrontation to British Rule: Early uprisings; The 1857 Revolt-reasons, character, course and result.
• Indian Freedom struggle the first stage: Growth of national consciousness; creation of Associations; Establishment of the Indian National Congress and its Moderate stage; Swadeshi Movement; Economic Nationalism; The development of Extremism and the split in Congress; The policy of Divide and Rule; Congress-League Pact of 1916.
• Gandhian thoughts and techniques of mass mobilization: Civil Disobedience, the Khilafat movement, Non-Cooperation Movement, and Quit India Movement; another strand in the National Movement-Revolutionaries, Subhash Chandra Bose, and the Indian National Army.
• Separatist movements in Indian politics: the Hindu Mahasabha and the Muslim League; Partition and Independence; The post-1945 developments.
• India independent in 1964. A parliamentary, democratic, secular. Jawaharlal Nehru’s vision, Foreign policy of Non-alignment, Planning and state-controlled industrialization. Agrarian modification.

UPSC History Optional Syllabus

Paper I

1. Sources Archaeological sources: Exploration, excavation, epigraphy, numismatics, monuments.

Literary sources

Indigenous: Primary and secondary; poetry, scientific literature, literature, literature in regional languages, religious literature.

Foreign account: Greek, Chinese and Arab writers.

2. Pre-history and Proto-history: Geographical factors; hunting and gathering (palaeolithic and Mesolithic); Beginning of agriculture  (neolithic and Chalcolithic).

3. Indus Valley Civilization: Origin, date, extent, characteristics-decline, survival and significance, art and architecture.

4. Megalithic Cultures: Distribution of pastoral and farming cultures outside the Indus, Development of community life, Settlements, Development of agriculture, Crafts, Pottery, and Iron industry.

5. Aryans and Vedic Period: Expansions of Aryans in India; Vedic Period: Religious and philosophic literature; Transformation from Rig Vedic period to the later Vedic period; Political, social, and economic life; Significance of the Vedic Age; Evolution of Monarchy and Varna system.

6. Period of Mahajanapadas: Formation of States (Mahajanapada): Republics and monarchies; Rise of urban centres; Trade routes;  Economic growth; Introduction of coinage; Spread of Jainism and Buddism; Rise of Magadha and Nandas. Iranian and Macedonian invasions and their impact.

7. Mauryan Empire: Foundation of the Mauryan Empire, Chandragupta, Kautilya and Arthashastra; Ashoka; Concept of  Dharma; Edicts; Polity, Administration, Economy; Art, architecture and sculpture; External contacts;  Religion; Spread of religion; Literature. The disintegration of the empire; sungas and Kanvas.

8. Post-Mauryan Period (Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Kushanas, Western Kshatrapas): Contact with the outside world; growth of urban centres, economy, coinage, development of religions,  Mahayana, social conditions, art, architecture, culture, literature and science.

9. Early State and Society in Eastern India, Deccan and South India: Kharavela, The Satavahanas, Tamil States of the Sangam Age; Administration, Economy, land grants,  coinage, trade guilds and urban centres; Buddhist centres; Sangam literature and culture; Art and architecture.

10. Guptas, Vakatakas and Vardhanas: Polity and administration, Economic conditions, Coinage of the Guptas, Land grants, Decline of urban centres, Indian feudalism, Caste system, Position of women, Education and educational institutions;  Nalanda, Vikramshila and Vallabhi, Literature, scientific literature, art and architecture.

11. Regional States during the Gupta Era: The Kadambas, Pallavas, Chalukyas of Badami; Polity and Administration, Trade guilds, Literature;  growth of Vaishnava and Saiva religions. Tamil Bhakti movement, Shankaracharya; Vedanta; Institutions of temple and temple architecture; Palas, Senas, Rashtrakutas, Paramaras, Polity and administration;  Cultural aspects. Arab conquest of Sind; Alberuni, The Chaluky as of Kalyana, Cholas, Hoysalas,  Pandyas; Polity and Administration; Local Government; Growth of art and architecture, religious sects,  Institution of temple and Mathas, Agraharas, education and literature, economy and society.

12. Themes in Early Indian Cultural History: Languages and texts, major stages in the evolution of art and architecture, major philosophical thinkers and schools, ideas in Science and Mathematics.

13. Early Medieval India, 750-1200:

1. Polity: Major political developments in Northern India and the peninsula, origin and the rise of Rajputs.
2. The Cholas: administration, village economy and society “Indian Feudalism”.
3. Agrarian economy and urban settlements.
4. Trade and commerce.
5. Society: the status of the Brahman and the new social order.
6. Condition of women.
7. Indian science and technology.

14. Cultural Traditions in India, 750-1200:

1. Philosophy: Shankaracharya and Vedanta, Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita, Madhva and BrahmaMimansa.
2. Religion: Forms and features of religion, Tamil devotional cult, growth of Bhakti, Islam and its arrival in India, Sufism.
3. Literature: Literature in Sanskrit, growth of Tamil literature, literature in the newly developing languages, Kalhan’s Rajtarangini, Alberuni’s India.
4. Art and Architecture: Temple architecture, sculpture, painting.

15. The Thirteenth Century:

1. Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate: The Ghurian invasions – factors behind Ghurian success.
2. Economic, Social and Cultural Consequences.
3. Foundation of Delhi Sultanate and early Turkish Sultans.
4. Consolidation: The rule of Iltutmish and Balban.

16. The Fourteenth Century:

1. “The Khalji Revolution”.
2. Alauddin Khalji: Conquests and territorial expansion, agrarian and economic measure.
3. Muhammad Tughluq: Major projects, agrarian measures, bureaucracy of Muhammad Tughluq.
4. Firuz Tugluq: Agrarian measures, achievements in civil engineering and public works, decline of the Sultanate, foreign contacts and Ibn Battuta’s account

17. Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries:

1. Society: composition of rural society, ruling classes, town dwellers, women, religious classes, caste and slavery under the Sultanate, Bhakti movement, and Sufi movement.
2. Culture: Persian literature, literature in the regional languages of North India, literature in the languages of South India, Sultanate architecture and new structural forms, painting, evolution of a composite culture.
3. Economy: Agricultural Production, the rise of urban economy and non-agricultural production, trade and commerce.

18. The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century-Political Developments and Economy:

1. Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Bengal, Kashmir (Zainul Abedin), Gujarat.
2. Malwa, Bahmanids.
3. The Vijayanagara Empire.
4. Lodis.
5. Mughal Empire, first phase: Babur, Humayun.
6. The Sur Empire: Sher Shah’s administration.
7. Portuguese colonial enterprise, Bhakti and Sufi Movements.

19. The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century- Society and Culture:

1. Regional culture specificities.
2. Literary traditions.
3. Provincial architectural.
4. Society, culture, literature and the arts in Vijayanagara Empire.

20. Akbar:

1. Conquests and consolidation of empire.
2. Establishment of jagir and mansab systems.
3. Rajput policy.
4. Evolution of religious and social outlook. Theory of Sulh-i-kul and religious policy.
5. Court patronage of art and technology.

21. Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century:

1. Major administrative policies of Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb.
2. The Empire and the Zamindars.
3. Religious policies of Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb.
4. Nature of the Mughal State.
5. Late Seventeenth Century crisis and the revolts.
6. The Ahom kingdom.
7. Shivaji and the early Maratha Kingdom.

22. Economy and society, in the 16th and 17th Centuries:

1. Population Agricultural and craft production.
2. Towns, commerce with Europe through Dutch, English and French companies: a trade revolution.
3. Indian mercantile classes. Banking, insurance and credit systems.
4. Conditions of peasants, Condition of Women.
5. Evolution of the Sikh community and the Khalsa Panth.

23. Culture during Mughal Empire:

1. Persian histories and other literature.
2. Hindi and religious literature.
3. Mughal architecture.
4. Mughal painting.
5. Provincial architecture and painting.
6. Classical music.
7. Science and technology.

24. The Eighteenth Century:

1. Factors for the decline of the Mughal Empire.
2. The regional principalities: Nizam’s Deccan, Bengal, Awadh.
3. Maratha ascendancy under the Peshwas.
4. The Maratha fiscal and financial system.
5. The emergence of Afghan power Battle of Panipat, 1761.
6. State of, political, cultural and economic, on the eve of the British conquest.

Paper II

1. European Penetration into India: The Early European Settlements; The Portuguese and the Dutch; The English and the French East  India Companies; Their struggle for supremacy; Carnatic Wars; Bengal-The conflict between the English and the Nawabs of Bengal; Siraj and the English; The Battle of Plassey; Significance of Plassey.

2. British Expansion in India: Bengal-Mir Jafar and Mir Kasim; The Battle of Buxar; Mysore; The Marathas; The three Anglo Maratha Wars; The Punjab.

3. Early Structure of the British Raj: The Early administrative structure; From diarchy to direct control; The Regulating Act (1773); The  Pitt’s India Act (1784); The Charter Act (1833); The Voice of Free Trade and the changing character of  British colonial rule; The English utilitarian and India.

4. Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule: 

1. Land revenue settlements in British India; The Permanent Settlement; Ryotwari Settlement; Mahalwari Settlement; Economic impact of the revenue arrangements; Commercialization of agriculture; Rise of landless agrarian labourers; Impoverishment of the rural society. 
2. Dislocation of traditional trade and commerce; De-industrialisation; Decline of traditional crafts; Drain of wealth; Economic transformation of India; Railroad and communication network including telegraph and postal services; Famine and poverty in the rural interior; European business enterprise and its limitations.

5. Social and Cultural Developments: The state of indigenous education, its dislocation; Orientalist-Anglicist controversy, The introduction of Western education in India; The rise of press, literature and public opinion; The rise of modern vernacular literature; Progress of Science; Christian missionary activities in India.

6. Social and Religious Reform Movements in Bengal and Other Areas: Ram Mohan Roy, The Brahmo Movement; Devendranath Tagore; Iswarchandra Vidyasagar; The  Young Bengal Movement; Dayanada Saraswati; The social reform movements in India including Sati,  widow remarriage, child marriage etc.; The contribution of the Indian Renaissance to the growth of modern  India; Islamic revivalism-the Feraizi and Wahabi Movements.

7. Indian Response to British Rule: Peasant movement and tribal uprisings in the 18th and 19th centuries including the Rangpur Dhing (1783), the Kol Rebellion (1832), the Mopla Rebellion in Malabar (1841-1920), the Santal Hul (1855),  Indigo Rebellion (1859-60), Deccan Uprising (1875) and the Munda Ulgulan (1899-1900); The Great Revolt of 1857 —Origin, character, causes of failure, the consequences; The shift in the character of peasant uprisings in the post-1857 period; the peasant movements of the 1920s and 1930s.

8. Factors leading to the birth of Indian Nationalism: Politics of Association; The Foundation of the  Indian National Congress; The Safety-valve thesis relating to the birth of the Congress; Programme and objectives of Early Congress; the social composition of early Congress leadership; the Moderates and  Extremists; The Partition of Bengal (1905); The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal; the economic and political aspects of Swadeshi Movement; The beginning of revolutionary extremism in India.

9. Rise of Gandhi; Character of Gandhian nationalism: Gandhi’s popular appeal; Rowlatt Satyagraha;  the Khilafat Movement; the Non-cooperation Movement; National politics from the end of the Non-cooperation movement to the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement; the two phases of the Civil  Disobedience Movement; Simon Commission; The Nehru Report; the Round Table Conferences; Nationalism and the Peasant Movements; Nationalism and Working class movements; Women and Indian youth and students in Indian politics (1885-1947); the election of 1937 and the formation of ministries;  Cripps Mission; the Quit India Movement; the Wavell Plan; The Cabinet Mission. 

10. Constitutional Developments in Colonial India between 1858 and 1935.

11. Other strands in the National Movement: The Revolutionaries: Bengal, the Punjab, Maharashtra, U.P. the Madras Presidency, Outside India. The Left; The Left within the Congress: Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, the Congress  Socialist Party; the Communist Party of India, other left parties.

12. Politics of Separatism; the Muslim League; the Hindu Mahasabha; Communalism and the politics of partition; Transfer of power; Independence.

13. Consolidation as a Nation; Nehru’s Foreign Policy; India and her neighbours (1947-1964); The linguistic reorganisation of States (1935-1947); Regionalism and regional inequality; Integration of Princely States; Princes in electoral politics; the Question of National Language.

14. Caste and Ethnicity after 1947; Backward Castes and Tribes in post-colonial electoral politics; Dalit movements.

15. Economic development and political change; Land reforms; the politics of planning and rural reconstruction; Ecology and environmental policy in post-colonial India; Progress of Science.

16. Enlightenment and Modern Ideas: (i) Major Ideas of Enlightenment: Kant, Rousseau. (ii) Spread of Enlightenment in the colonies. (iii) Rise of socialist ideas (up to Marx); spread of Marxian Socialism.

17. Origins of Modern Politics: (i) European States System. (ii) American Revolution and the Constitution. (iii) French Revolution and Aftermath, 1789-1815. (iv) American Civil War with reference to Abraham Lincoln and the abolition of slavery. (v) British Democratic politics, 1815-1850: Parliamentary Reformers, Free Traders, Chartists.

18. Industrialization : (i) English Industrial Revolution: Causes and Impact on Society. (ii) Industrialization in other countries: USA, Germany, Russia, Japan. (iii) Industrialization and Globalization.

19. Nation-State System: (i) Rise of Nationalism in the 19th century. (ii) Nationalism: State-building in Germany and Italy. (iii) Disintegration of Empires in the face of the emergence of nationalities across the World.

20. Imperialism and Colonialism: (i) South and South-East Asia. (ii) Latin America and South Africa. (iii) Australia. (iv) Imperialism and free trade: Rise of neo-imperialism.

21. Revolution and Counter-Revolution: (i) 19th Century European revolutions. (ii) The Russian Revolution of 1917-1921. (iii) Fascist Counter-Revolution, Italy and Germany. (iv) The Chinese Revolution of 1949.

22. World Wars: (i) 1st and 2nd World Wars as Total Wars: Societal implications. (ii) World War I : Causes and Consequences. (iii) World War II: Causes and Consequences.

23. The World after World War II: (i) Emergence of Two Power Blocs. (ii) Emergence of Third World and non-alignment. (iii) UNO and the global disputes.

24. Liberation from Colonial Rule: (i) Latin America-Bolivar. (ii) Arab World-Egypt. (iii) Africa-Apartheid to Democracy. (iv) South-East Asia-Vietnam.

25. Decolonization and Underdevelopment: (i) Factors constraining Development; Latin America, Africa.

26. Unification of Europe: (i) Post-War Foundations; NATO and European Community. (ii) Consolidation and Expansion of European Community (iii) European Union.

27. Disintegration of the Soviet Union and the Rise of the Unipolar World: (i) Factors leading to the collapse of Soviet Communism and the Soviet Union, 1985-1991. (ii) Political Changes in East Europe 1989-2001. (iii) End of the Cold War and US Ascendancy in the World as the lone superpower.

Key Takeaways from the History Syllabus UPSC

History is a vast subject in general, not overstating the scope of History for UPSC. Managing to cover the whole syllabus and memorising it is a big deal. The below tips should help you do it better.

Decode the Structure of the Syllabus

• Divide and Conquer: Break the UPSC history syllabus into distinct sections: Ancient, Medieval, Modern, and World History. This will help you focus on one area at a time.
• Paper Differentiation: Recognize the differences between the Prelims and Optional syllabus. Focus on key topics for the Prelims and go deeper into the Optional subjects.

Focus on Themes and Trends

• Identify Key Themes: Look for overarching themes such as political evolution, economic impact, cultural developments, and religious influences. It will help you connect events across different periods.
• Causal Relationships: Pay attention to cause-and-effect relationships in historical events. It can aid in answering analytical questions.

Use of Study Resources

• Diverse Sources: Utilize a variety of resources to cover the UPSC history syllabus—NCERT textbooks for foundational knowledge, advanced books like R.S. Sharma for Ancient History, and modern interpretations from authors like Bipan Chandra for Modern History.
• Visual Aids: Employ timelines, charts, and maps to visualize connections and events over time. This is especially useful for grasping geographical distributions and cultural influences.
• Acronyms: Create acronyms or phrases to remember lists or sequences (e.g., for the Mauryan Empire: “CAMP” for Chandragupta, Asoka, Mauryan polity) in the UPSC history syllabus.

Interlinking Subjects

• Integrate History with Current Affairs: Make connections between historical events and contemporary issues. It will enrich your understanding of the UPSC history syllabus and provide context for current events.
• Cultural Context: Study the cultural developments in conjunction with political and economic changes to gain a holistic view of society during different periods.

Developing Answer Writing Skills

• Practice Regularly: Write answers for previous years’ questions and focus on structuring them logically, with clear introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions.
• Time Management: Practice writing under timed conditions to improve speed and clarity.

6. Revision Strategies

• Create Summaries: Make concise notes or summaries of each topic. Highlight key points, dates, and figures to facilitate quick revision of the UPSC history syllabus.
• Regular Revisions: Set aside time for periodic revision of topics to reinforce memory and understanding.

Group Study and Discussion

• Study Groups: Engage with peers in discussions to share and clarify doubts. You will be able to retain information much better.
• Teaching Others: Explaining concepts of the UPSC history syllabus to others can improve your understanding and retention.

Mock Tests and Feedback

• Take regular mock tests to assess your preparation level and identify weak areas. 
• Analyse your performance in mock tests and work on the feedback to improve.

Current Affairs Relevance

• Stay updated with current affairs and relate them to historical events or trends. This can be particularly useful in interviews and essay papers.

Focus on Ethics and Values in History

• Understand the ethical implications of historical events and leaders. This can provide insights into the moral dimensions of political decisions and their impacts.

Conclusion

While the blog covers topics for the UPSC History syllabus, candidates should also focus on integrating historical events with contemporary issues. Understanding the socio-political context and its impact on current affairs can deepen insights and improve analytical skills. Ultimately, it leads to a more comprehensive preparation strategy for the UPSC exam.

FAQs

Is History a mandatory or optional subject in the UPSC exam?

History is a mandatory subject in the UPSC exam. It is included in both the Preliminary and Main examinations, covering Indian history, world history, and art and culture. It forms a crucial part of the General Studies syllabus.

Are NCERT books sufficient to cover History for the UPSC exam?

While NCERT books give you sufficient material to get the basics of History, they’re not enough. You will need more reference books and textbooks for complete coverage of the UPSC history syllabus.

Is the modern history syllabus for UPSC tough?

The Modern History syllabus for UPSC can be challenging due to its breadth and depth. It covers numerous events, movements, and their implications. Consistent study and revision can help manage it effectively.

Is History a scoring subject in UPSC?

History can be a high-scoring subject in UPSC exams if approached correctly. It offers many factual questions and allows for detailed answers in mains. However, success depends on thorough preparation, understanding of concepts, and effective articulation skills.

Sociology is a subject that deals with society and aspects related to its structure. It has been one of the best optional subjects in the UPSC mains with decent success rates. Knowing the Sociology optional syllabus is the first for aspirants who opted for this subject in the UPSC Mains.

There are no major changes to the Sociology optional syllabus this year also. Knowing the syllabus is essential to analyse your preparation level and set up a study strategy. Let’s go into the details of the sociology optional syllabus for UPSC and key takeaways for aspirants.

UPSC Sociology Optional Syllabus 2025

The sociology optional syllabus for UPSC is divided into two papers. The first paper covers the fundamentals of sociology, while the second paper is particularly about Indian society and its structure. The syllabus of Sociology optional for UPSC is covered in papers VI & VII of UPSC Mains.

UPSC Sociology Optional Paper I

UPSC Sociology Optional Paper II

Analysing the UPSC Sociology Syllabus

1. Focus on mastering thinkers like Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber early. Their concepts are the backbone of many questions and help in analysing current social issues.
   1. Sociological Thinkers, Social Stratification and Mobility, Politics and Society, and Social Change in Modern Society are the most important topics in Paper I of the sociology optional syllabus.

2. Paper II covers Indian society in-depth. Get a clear hold of caste, class, and rural and urban dynamics. These topics often overlap with general studies, so preparation is doubly beneficial.
   1. Caste System and Mobility, Indian sociological thinkers (including modern thinkers), Systems of Kinship in India, and Social changes are vital topics in Paper II of the sociology optional syllabus.

3. Don’t skip the research methods section in the sociology optional syllabus for UPSC. Understanding qualitative and quantitative methods is scoring for both theory and application-based questions. It gives structure to your answers.

4. Apply what you learn to everyday observations because sociology is everywhere. Look at news, social movements, and cultural changes through a sociological lens to better grasp the subject and improve your answer-writing skills.

5. Since sociology papers require well-structured answers, practice breaking down theories and concepts into simple, clear points. Answering should focus on clarity and logic rather than complex jargon. Completing the UPSC sociology syllabus also has an impact.

6. When discussing sociological theories, always use relevant Indian examples from Paper II. Whether you’re discussing social change, caste, or movements, grounding your answers in India’s reality will fetch more marks.

7. Many concepts in Paper I of the sociology optional syllabus apply to Paper II. For instance, theories of power in Paper I can be linked to Indian political dynamics in Paper II. 

8. Use current social movements, policies, and issues in your answers. Sociology is a dynamic subject. Applying contemporary examples makes your answers stand out.

9. Back up your answers with current statistics, e.g. related to population growth, urbanisation, or literacy rates.

Sociology Books for UPSC

Preparation Tips for UPSC Sociology Optional

• Go through the sociology optional syllabus thoroughly and analyse it to weigh your strengths and weaknesses related to it.
• Collect previous sociology UPSC question papers to know the pattern of questions and rough weightage.
• When you’re using books to cover the sociology optional syllabus, use a maximum of two books at any time. Don’t depend on multiple sociology books for UPSC to confuse yourself.
• Practise answer-writing to improve writing skills and express clearly.
• Keep note of Sociology topics that align with the GS paper of UPSC. It can ease your preparation significantly
• If sociology is your educational background, covering the Sociology optional syllabus will not take much time.
• Start the preparation at least before a year if that’s not the case.
• There are plenty of free online resources available on YouTube and other websites. Do make use of them.
• Write as many mock tests as possible to assess your preparation for the sociology optional syllabus for UPSC.

Conclusion

In addition to mastering the Sociology optional syllabus for UPSC, aspirants should actively engage with current social trends and debates. Regularly reading sociological journals or publications can internalise understanding. Moreover, joining study groups or discussions helps in gaining diverse perspectives, and improving both analytical skills and answer-writing for the exam.

FAQs

Should I choose Sociology as optional in UPSC?

It totally depends on your educational background, preparation level, personal interests, speed of learning, time for preparation etc. UPSC allows you to choose the subject of your choice for an optional paper. Go through the syllabus of sociology optional for UPSC and refer to the previous year’s sociology UPSC question papers. Ultimately, you must select the one that maximises your overall score in the Civils. 

Is the Sociology optional syllabus difficult?

Sociology is easier compared to other optional subjects in UPSC. However, it is even easier for those with Sociology in their education. If you’re a beginner, start the preparation early to get hold of the fundamentals.

What is Sociology in the UPSC exam?

Sociology in UPSC is an optional subject in the Civil Services Examination. It covers the study of society, its structures, institutions, and issues. The subject is about understanding social dynamics and challenges. The syllabus of sociology optional for UPSC contains fundamentals of the subject and deals with Indian society at large.

Is Sociology related to social subjects at the school level?

Yes, Sociology is related to social subjects at the school level. Social Science introduces concepts of society, culture, and institutions. These form the foundation for deeper study in Sociology.

The UPSC Mathematics Optional syllabus is vast and highly conceptual, making it a favoured choice for candidates with a strong mathematical background. The syllabus hasn’t changed much from 2024. While it consists of key topics like Linear Algebra, Calculus, and Numerical Methods, understanding the depth of each subject is crucial for success. One often-overlooked aspect is the need for consistent practice, especially for topics like Differential Equations and Real Analysis. 

Additionally, having a clear strategy for solving complex problems and revisiting foundational concepts regularly can be game-changing. This blog provides a detailed UPSC mathematics optional syllabus, book recommendations, and much more. Keep reading.

UPSC Maths Optional Syllabus 2024: Topics

UPSC Maths Optional Syllabus: Paper I

Linear Algebra

Vector spaces over R and C, linear dependence and independence, subspaces, bases, dimensions, Linear transformations, rank and nullity, matrix of a linear transformation. Algebra of Matrices; Row and column reduction, Echelon form, congruence’s and similarity; Rank of a matrix; Inverse of a matrix; Solution of system of linear equations; Eigenvalues and eigenvectors, characteristic polynomial, Cayley-Hamilton theorem, Symmetric, skew-symmetric, Hermitian, skew-Hermitian, orthogonal and unitary matrices and their eigenvalues.

Calculus

Real numbers, functions of a real variable, limits, continuity, differentiability, mean-value theorem, Taylor’s theorem with remainders, indeterminate forms, maxima and minima, asymptotes; Curve tracing; Functions of two or three variables; Limits, continuity, partial derivatives, maxima and minima, Lagrange’s method of multipliers, Jacobian. Riemann’s definition of definite integrals; Indefinite integrals; Infinite and improper integrals; Double and triple integrals (evaluation techniques only); Areas, surface and volumes.

Analytic Geometry

Cartesian and polar coordinates in three dimensions, second-degree equations in three variables, reduction to Canonical forms; straight lines, the shortest distance between two skew lines, Plane, sphere, cone, cylinder, paraboloid, ellipsoid, hyperboloid of one and two sheets and their properties.

Ordinary Differential Equations

Formulation of differential equations; Equations of the first order and first degree, integrating factor; Orthogonal trajectory; Equations of first order but not of first degree, Clairaut’s equation, singular solution. Second and higher order linear equations with constant coefficients, complementary functions, particular integral and general solutions. Section order linear equations with variable coefficients, Euler-Cauchy equation; Determination of complete solution when one solution is known using the method of variation of parameters. Laplace and Inverse Laplace transforms and their properties, Laplace transforms of elementary functions. Application to initial value problems for 2nd order linear equations with constant coefficients.

Dynamics and Statics

Rectilinear motion, simple harmonic motion, motion in a plane, projectiles; Constrained motion; Work and energy, conservation of energy; Kepler’s laws, orbits under central forces. Equilibrium of a system of particles; Work and potential energy, friction, Common catenary; Principle of virtual work; Stability of equilibrium, equilibrium of forces in three dimensions.

Vector Analysis

Scalar and vector fields, differentiation of vector field of a scalar variable; Gradient, divergence and curl in cartesian and cylindrical coordinates; Higher order derivatives; Vector identities and vector equation. Application to geometry: Curves in space, curvature and torsion; Serret-Furenet’s formulae. Gauss and Stokes’ theorems, Green’s identities.

UPSC Maths Optional Syllabus: Paper II

Algebra

Groups, subgroups, cyclic groups, cosets, Lagrange’s Theorem, normal subgroups, quotient groups, homomorphism of groups, basic isomorphism theorems, permutation groups, Cayley’s theorem. Rings, subrings and ideals, homomorphisms of rings; Integral domains, principal ideal domains, Euclidean domains and unique factorization domains; Fields, quotient fields.

Real Analysis

Real number system as an ordered field with least upper bound property; Sequences, limit of a sequence, Cauchy sequence, completeness of real line; Series and its convergence, absolute and conditional convergence of series of real and complex terms, rearrangement of series. Continuity and uniform continuity of functions, properties of continuous functions on compact sets. Riemann integral, improper integrals; Fundamental theorems of integral calculus. Uniform convergence, continuity, differentiability and integrability for sequences and series of functions; Partial derivatives of functions of several (two or three) variables, maxima and minima.

Complex Analysis

Analytic function, Cauchy-Riemann equations, Cauchy’s theorem, Cauchy’s integral formula, power series, representation of an analytic function, Taylor’s series; Singularities; Laurent’s series; Cauchy’s residue theorem; Contour integration.

Linear Programming Linear programming problems, basic solution, basic feasible solution and optimal solution; Graphical method and simplex method of solutions; Duality. Transportation and assignment problems.

Partial Differential Equations

Family of surfaces in three dimensions and formulation of partial differential equations; Solution of quasilinear partial differential equations of the first order, Cauchy’s method of characteristics; Linear partial differential equations of the second order with constant coefficients, canonical form; Equation of a vibrating string, heat equation, Laplace equation and their solutions.

Numerical Analysis and Computer Programming 

Numerical methods: Solution of algebraic and transcendental equations of one variable by bisection, Regula-Falsi and Newton-Raphson methods, solution of the system of linear equations by Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jorden (direct), Gauss-Seidel (iterative) methods. Newton’s (forward and backwards) and interpolation, Lagrange’s interpolation. 

Numerical integration: Trapezoidal rule, Simpson’s rule, Gaussian quadrature formula. 

Numerical solution of ordinary differential equations: Euler and Runga Kutta methods. 

Computer Programming: Binary system; Arithmetic and logical operations on numbers; Octal and Hexadecimal Systems; Conversion to and from decimal Systems; Algebra of binary numbers. Elements of computer systems and concept of memory; Basic logic gates and truth tables, Boolean algebra, normal forms. Representation of unsigned integers, signed integers and reals, double precision reals, and long integers. Algorithms and flow charts for solving numerical analysis problems.

Mechanics and Fluid Dynamics

Generalised coordinates; D’Alembert’s principle and Lagrange’s equations; Hamilton equations; Moment of inertia; Motion of rigid bodies in two dimensions. Equation of continuity; Euler’s equation of motion for inviscid flow; Stream-lines, the path of a particle; Potential flow; Two-dimensional and axisymmetric motion; Sources and sinks, vortex motion; Navier-Stokes equation for a viscous fluid.

Note: If you’re looking for a UPSC maths optional syllabus PDF download, you can visit the official UPSC website. 

UPSC Mathematics Optional Books

Conclusion

While the UPSC Mathematics Optional syllabus is detailed and comprehensive, mastering it requires more than good books. Regular practice, time management, and strategic problem-solving are essential for success. It’s also important to stay updated with past years’ question papers and refine exam-writing skills. A well-structured study plan, with consistent revisions and mock tests, can significantly boost confidence and improve performance in the actual exam.

FAQs

What is the syllabus of maths optional UPSC?

The syllabus for UPSC Mathematics Optional includes:

Paper I: Linear Algebra, Calculus, Analytic Geometry, Ordinary Differential Equations, Dynamics and Statics, and Vector Analysis.

Paper II: Algebra, Real Analysis, Complex Analysis, Linear Programming, Partial Differential Equations, Numerical Analysis and Computer Programming, Mechanics, and Fluid Dynamics.

For a detailed syllabus, visit the official website of UPSC at upsc.gov.in.

Is a calculator allowed in IAS mains?

No, UPSC Civils doesn’t allow calculators inside the examination hall for mathematics exams. 

How long does it take to finish the Maths optional for IAS?

It usually takes 6-7 months to complete Maths optional for IAS. Depending on your comfort, understanding, and effort, it could take less or more time. Those without a Maths background may need at least 7-8 months or more.

Can I crack UPSC if I am weak in maths?

Yes, you can crack UPSC even if you’re weak in maths. Focus on your strengths, choose optional subjects wisely, and work hard on general studies and other non-maths areas.

Is Mathematics a good optional for UPSC Civils?

Yes, mathematics is a good optional for UPSC Civils if you have a strong background in it. It offers scoring potential but requires consistent practice and a clear understanding of concepts.